A HANDBOOK 

OF 

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 




Dr. GEORG KERSCHENSTEINER 

Director of Schools, Munich, Germany 



A HANDBOOK 

OF 

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 




BY 



JOSEPH SyTAYLOR, Pd.D. 

DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK 

AUTHOR OF "PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING READING, 
" ART OF CLASS MANAGEMENT AND DISCIPLINE," " COMPOSI- 
TION IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL," "WORD STUDY 
IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL," "GRADED MOVE- 
MENT WRITING FOR BEGINNERS," ETC. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1914 

AB rights reserved 



4 



Copyright, 1914, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1914. 



Nnrfaroflti 3Pwsg | 
J. S. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



SEP 24 1914 



(0)C!.A379627 



The old general rule was that educated people did not 
perform manual labor. They managed to eat their bread, 
leaving the toil of producing it to the uneducated. This was 
not an insupportable evil to the working bees, so long as the 
class of drones remained very small. But now, especially in 
these free States, nearly all are educated — quite too nearly 
all to have the labor of the uneducated in any wise ade- 
quate to the support of the whole. It follows from this that 
henceforth educated people must labor. Otherwise educa- 
tion itself would become a positive and intolerable evil. 
No country can sustain in idleness more than a small per- 
centage of its numbers. The great majority must labor at 
something productive. From these premises the problem 
springs, " How can labor and education be the most satis- 
factorily combined ? " 

Free labor argues that as the Author of man makes every 
individual with one head and one pair of hands, it was prob- 
ably intended that heads and hands should cooperate as 
friends, and that that particular head should direct and con- 
trol that pair of hands. As each man has one mouth to be 
fed, and one pair of hands to furnish food, it was probably 
intended that that pa:^cu|ar pair of hands should feed that 
particular mouth — tl^ each head is the natural guardian, 
director, and protector of the hands and mouth inseparably 
connected with it ; and that being so, every head should be 
cultivated and improved by whatever will add to its capacity 
for performing its charge. In one word, free labor insists 
on universal education. — Abraham Lincoln. 



PREFACE 

It has taken the United States a long time 
to see the need of vocational education. The 
industrial revolution has been so gradual and the 
stream of immigration has so largely supplied 
our demand for skilled labor that we have drifted 
into a perilous situation without any sense of the 
danger ahead. Now that we realize our position, 
something like a panic has seized the American 
people. The cry of the Nation is, " What must 
I do to be saved ? " Some are for lightening 
the ship by casting out the wheat into the sea. 
Others propose to abandon the old craft and 
trust their lives to the life-boats. Educators who 
have been studying retardation and elimination 
have come to the conclusion that the "enrich- 
ment " of the course of study has gone so far 
that now the children are suffering from mental 
indigestion. They are those who would cast the 



viii PREFACE 

wheat into the sea. They would reduce the sub- 
ject matter by taking out algebra, foreign lan- 
guages and histories, and the study of literary 
masterpieces, leaving the curriculum as it was 
thirty years ago. Others, especially laymen who 
see that our schools are not preparing children 
to earn a livelihood, want us to discard the tra- 
ditional curriculum of culture and teach only 
vocational subjects. These are the ones who 
would take to the life-boats. 

Both of the remedies seem unwise and inade- 
quate. The mere reduction of the curriculum 
in bulk is not a cure for the ills from which 
we suffer. The vocationalizing of the common 
schools is the exploitation of a noble institution 
for greed and gain. The mission of the elemen- 
tary school is to put the children of all the people 
in possession of those ethical and cultural ideals 
which constitute civilization. It is so busy teach- 
ing children how to live that it has no time to 
teach them how to make a living. 

The study presented in this volume is intended 
to show how foreign nations and certain Ameri- 
can communities have solved or have tried to 
solve the problem of vocational education. The 



PREFACE ix 

work was undertaken originally in connection 
with a course of lectures on School Administra- 
tion given by the author in New York Univer- 
sity. It is believed that the discussion will be 
useful to students of education anywhere, as well 
as to the general public. The employer, the em- 
ployee, the taxpayer, the publicist, the legislator, 
are all profoundly interested in the questions 
here presented. 

There is at present no single volume which 
gives a systematic survey of the general field of 
vocational education, embodying both the his- 
torical and the logical aspects of the subject. A 
vast body of material has been accumulated, but 
it lies scattered in magazines and monographs 
printed in many languages. This handbook is 
a digest of some of the most important of this 
literature. In this day of agitation and clamor 
for change, the greatest need is accurate infor- 
mation, a proper perspective, and a judicial con- 
sideration of values. The Nation has poured 
millions into its common schools ungrudgingly. 
Now it asks : " What lack I yet ? " In a matter 
of such great importance deliberate action in the 
light of complete knowledge is imperative. For, 



X PREFACE 

as Bacon has written, " Whoever too hastily 
catches at certainties shall end in doubts, as he 
who seasonably withholds his judgment shall 
arrive at certainties." 

JOSEPH S. TAYLOR. 
July i, 19 14. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



I. 

II. 



III. 

IV. 



CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTION 

PAGE 

Equal Opportunities for All i 

Training for Citizenship . . . . . . 5 

(1 ) The Habit of Success 7 

(2) The Munich Idea 8 

America a Mere Stevedore ...... 10 

The Industrial Revolution ii 



CHAPTER II 
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE 



England 

I . The Beginnings 

2. 



Private Industrial Education 
3. Public Industrial Education 
(i) Organization 

(<2) Free Schools 
(b) Ordinary Evening Schools 
{c) Science and Art Centers 
II. Scotland 

1 . Organization and Supervision . 

2. The Continuation Schools of Edinburgh 
III. Germany 

1. Organization . . . 

2. Supervision ..... 

3. Continuation Schools of Munich 

(i) Supervision 

{a) Employers' Associations 
{b) Continuation School Board 
(^) Cost of Continuation Schools 



17 
17 
18 
18 



24 
24 
24 
26 
26 
28 
30 
31 
34 
3S 
39 
40 
40 
41 



xu 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PAGE 

IV. France 42 

1 . Origin of Educational System 42 

2. Organization of Public Instruction .... 43 

3. Vocational Education . . . . . .44 

(i) Elementary 44 

(2) Practical Schools (Continuation) of Com- 

merce and Industry ... 46 

(3) National Schools (Secondary) of Arts and 

Trades 47 

(4) Schools of Agriculture .... 48 

(5) Summary 49 

CHAPTER III 

INDUSTRIAL VS, MANUAL TRAINING 

I. A Retrospect 50 

II. A Study in Values . . . . . . -52 

III. Changes in Manual Work 54 

IV. The Place of Industries in the Public Education 56 
I. Industries in the Elementary School ... 56 

(i) The Prigiary Grades 56 

(2) The Grammar Grades .... 59 

(3) Special Industrial Classes .... 60 

(4) A Study of Elimination .... 61 



II. 



CHAPTER IV 
THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL 
Differentiated Programs of Study 

1. The Fitchburg School 

2. The Cleveland School 

3. The Albany and Rochester Schools 

4. Other Schools . . . 
Industries in the High School 

1. Adjustment to the Community . 

2. Course of Study of a Rural High School 



65 
68 

71 

72 

73 

74 

79 
80 



t/ 



TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii 



CHAPTER V 

CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 
The Shop vs. the Trade School . 



The Continuation School 

The Part-time System in Cincinnati 

1. The Engineering College . 

2. Part-time in High Schools 

3. The Continuation School for Apprentices 

IV. The Laws of Massachusetts and Connecticut 

1. The Newton Independent Industrial School 

2. The Fitchburg High School .... 

3. The Springfield Evening School for Trades 



FAGS 

83 
85 
87 

87 
88 
89 
92 

93 
94 
95 



CHAPTER VI 

THE TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS 

I. The Prussian Plan 97 

1. Building Trades and Mechanical Engineering . . 98 

2. Industrial Arts 99 

3. Continuation Schools 99 

4. Vocational Teachers for Girls' Schools . . .100 
II. The Munich Plan 102 

III. The Wurttemberg Plan 103 

IV. The Baden Plan 104 

V. Summary 106 

VI. Plans in the United States . . . .107 

1. Teachers of Agriculture 108 

2. The Cincinnati Plan in 

3. Other Agencies for Training Vocational Teachers . 112 

4. A Study of American Conditions . . . '113 

(i) Certification . . .- . . .113 
(2) Sources of Supply 1 14 



xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

(3) Proposed Schemes for Training Shop 

Teachers 116 

{a) Scholarships 116 

{b) Special Normal Schools . .116 

{c) Special Course in Intermediate 

Technical School . . • 117 
(d) Special Evening Course in Tech- 
nical College . . . -117 
5. Conclusion .117 

CHAPTER VII 

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 

I. Scope . 120 

II. Vocational Guidance in New York City . .121 

1. The Students' Aid Committee . . . . .122 

2. A Central Vocational Bureau 124 

(i) Functions ....... 125 

III. Vocational Guidance in Boston . . . .127 
I. Work of the Vocation Bureau 128 

(i) Information . . . . . .128 

(2) Education . . . . . . .130 

(3) Counsel 130 

(4) Vocational Advising 130 

IV. Summary 131 

CHAPTER VIII 
APPRENTICESHIP AND COMPULSORY EDUCATION 



I. European Experience 



1. Switzerland . . . . 

2. Germany 

(i) The Imperial Industrial Law 
(2) Apprenticeship Contract 

(a) Mutual Services . 

(Jb) Examination 



133 
133 
134 
135 
136 
137 
138 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XV 

PAGE 

II. History of the American Apprenticeship System 138 

1. Legal Indentures 140 

(i) A Concrete Case 141 

2. The Entrepreneur 143 

3. Trade Union and Apprenticeship . . . .143 
III. Compulsory Education 145 

1. Germany . . . 147 

2. England 148 

3. Scotland 150 

4. Ireland 150 

5. France 150 

6. Switzerland 151 

7. The United States 151 

(i) The School Census 153 

(2) The Attendance Officer . . . .156 

(3) The School Visitor 161 



CHAPTER IX 

CONCLUSION 

I. The Danger 164 

II. A Common Error 166 

III. The Remedy 167 

IV. National Aid 169 

V. Summary 170 

CHAPTER X 
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND INVESTIGATION 173 

CHAPTER XI 

BIBLIOGRAPHY .... 180 



XVI 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAPTER XII 

APPENDIX . . . . 

I. New York Law Relative to Vocational Edu- 
cation 

IL Two-year Courses for Boys and Girls 

in. An Undemocratic Proposal . 

IV. Monthly Report of School Visitor . 

V. Murray Hill Pre-vocational School 

VI. Vocational Education Bill in Congress 

VII. The Wisconsin Apprentice Law . 

VIII. A German Apprentice Contract 

IX. Wanted: A Job 

X. New York Vocational School for Boys 

XI. New York Evening School of Industrial Art 



PAGE 

183 



183 

190 

191 

196 

202 

203 
209 
213 
216 
219 
220 



Index 223 



A HANDBOOK 

OF 

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL 
EDUCATION 

CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTION 

I. Equal Opportunities for All. — One of the 

fundamental principles underlying a public school 
system is that it shall offer equal opportunities for 
all. The American public school boasts of this as 
one of its characteristic merits. An examination of 
the facts shows the claim to be unfounded. The 
opportunities are equal only in the sense that all 
classes may freely partake of the common training 
given in the elementary school. Beyond that there 
is no longer even a pretense of maintaining equality 
of opportunity. For the fortunate few whose am- 
bition and economic condition impel them to prepare 
for a profession, the state has opened high schools 
leading to colleges and professional schools. Col- 
leges are often free to this class of students. 



2 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

Teachers are everywhere trained in tax-supported 
institutions. But the boy who is obHged for what- 
ever reason to become a wage earner at fourteen is 
not so fortunate. In New York the law compels 
him, if he is not a graduate of the elementary school, 
to attend an evening school, there to pore over books 
after a day's labor. But it seldom offers him prep- 
aration for the kind of work he is doing. The girl 
who leaves at fourteen is no better off. She is, so 
far as the State is concerned, allowed to shift for 
herself. There is no further assistance from the 
school, unless she voluntarily goes to an evening 
school. Even then she is fortunate if she finds 
anything that will make her more efficient as a wage 
earner or helper in the home. In short, the few 
receive preparation for life's duties at public expense ; 
the many are turned out of the schools without such 
preparation. The enlightened nations of Europe 
have closed up the gap between school and industry. 
By a system of special schools and government- 
regulated apprenticeships, school and vocation in- 
terlock, so that no time is wasted in the new adjust- 
ment. In our country this gap is wide open. The 
pupil leaves the school and then gropes around to 
find life's work. It may take him years to do it; 



INTRODUCTION 



and he may never drift into the particular thing for 
which he is best adapted. The years between 
fourteen and sixteen are largely wasted, because 



/)in«r<c(t 




^^^Yw 



fp ^ a, «■ a» «r «o *r »n» 

Relation of School to Industry.^ 



what was learned in the elementary school is soon 
forgotten, and no new form of instruction is provided 
to supplement it. There is no supervised appren- 
ticeship system which insures thorough training in 
a vocation. In this condition we find the majority 

1 The author cannot vouch for the accuracy of this diagram ; but 
there is no doubt in his mind that the facts correspond in a general way 
with the graphic representation, which is taken with permission from 
Hodge's Association Educational Work. 



4 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

of the male youth of our land, who are soon to be- 
come the governing class. The illustration on 
page 3 is a graphic representation of the relation of 
the school training of males and their vocations. 
It is based on census and other government reports. 
The verticals a and h show the number of boys in 
school at the ages of ten and fifteen in North America 
and Germany. The verticals c, d, and e show the 
number of males as wage earners. Line b is the 
significant feature of the graph. Note the differ- 
ence between this Hne in the two diagrams. In 
America the boy wastes his precious years between 
fourteen and sixteen in idleness or unskilled and 
uneducative employment. In Germany he trans- 
fers from the pubhc day school to an apprenticeship 
regulated by the government, with supplementary 
technical training in a compulsory continuation 
school. In this way the gap shown in the American 
curve has been almost entirely removed from the 
German curve. 

In a recent address before the National Society 
for the Promotion of Industrial Education, Profes- 
sor Carver of Harvard University said : — 

"In the present conservation movement it is highly im- 
portant that we realize two things : first, that our most valu- 



INTRODUCTION 5 

able resources are our people, and second, that we are wasting 
people more than we are wasting anything else. ... If 
one will look carefully about he will see, in any community, 
so many ways in which labor-power is being wasted. . . . 
There are, first, the army of the unemployed, or the involun- 
tarily idle; second, the imperfectly employed, or the un- 
trained ; third, the improperly employed, or the acquisitively 
rather than productively employed ; and fourth, the volun- 
tarily idle, commonly known as the leisure class." 

II. Training for Citizenship. — The State can- 
not continue to spend vast sums on high schools 
and universities and neglect vocational training 
without repudiating the reasons usually given for 
maintaining schools of any sort as a public charge. 
Self-preservation by training future citizens is the jus- 
tification of the State for spending money on schools. 
We have come to a point where the State must 
enter the field of industrial education, and thus 
give equal opportunity to artisan, farmer, merchant, 
and professional man. Justice to the individual 
and the welfare of the State both demand this, 
course. 

There is sound psychology and profound phi- 
losophy in the saying, ^' Nothing succeeds like 
success." The man who is riding on the tide of 
success sees rainbows on every leaden sky. He 



6 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

becomes an optimist. " God's in his heaven — 
airs right with the world.'' He is a spring of joy 
to his family; he becomes a good neighbor and a 
delightful companion. His health is good, his 
mind is clear and alert. He is the potential, if 
not the actual, good citizen. But now let adver- 
sity come to him. Let him fail in his chosen en- 
deavor and lose his fortune or his position. Con- 
vince him that he has mistaken his calling, that 
he can never succeed in his present vocation. Get 
him thoroughly discouraged. Then what happens 
to him physically, mentally, and morally? He at 
once becomes a pessimist. He sees a cloud of dis- 
aster behind every bow of promise. He is moody 
and irritable, so that his own children are afraid 
to speak to him. He shuns his neighbors. He 
thinks of nothing save his own misfortunes. His 
health declines. He has neither appetite nor the 
power of digestion. He envies others more for- 
tunate than himself, and walks the streets with 
bitterness in his heart. His hand is against every 
man, and he feels that all the world is against him. 
He is not the material out of which good citizens 
are made. He recognizes no duties to society 
because he thinks society is unjust to him. He 



INTRODUCTION 7 

may drown his sorrow in debauchery, join the 
ranks of criminals, or seek refuge in suicide. 

I . The Habit of Success. — Dr. Luther Halsey 
Gulick has a chapter in one of his books on 
The Habit of Success, from which the following 
is quoted : — 

"The principle of the habit of success is constantly dem- 
onstrated in athletics. In practicing for the high jump, 
the beginner will start with the stick at that height at which 
he can jump it easily, and he will raise it every time that he 
clears the stick, so that he must always jump higher. And 
when by the greatest effort he succeeds in clearing the stick at 
his approximately greatest height, he will put it still an inch 
higher — at a point where he must of necessity fail. For a 
long time he will struggle under conditions where failure is 
almost inevitable. This excess of effort always means the 
use of unnecessary muscles and combination of muscles in the 
endeavor to find some better way to jump. That disturbs 
that precision of movement which is essential to any first-class 
athletic performer. It is known as 'form.' The result is 
that through his excess of effort he never learns to jump as 
well as does a boy who most of the time jumps within his 
ability and who thus acquires perfect form, perfect control. 
This is not to say that a good jumper never tests himself; 
he does. But the bulk of his work is done under conditions 
where he can succeed, where he can carry his body in the most 
perfect form." ^ 

* Mind and Work, by Luther H. Gulick, Doubleday, Page & Co., 
1908, p. 8. 



8 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

2. The Munich Idea. — This is the foundation 
upon which Dr. Kerschensteiner has erected his 
system of vocational training in Munich. " Moral 
forces, like skill in work, grow on no other soil than 
joy in work," says the Herr Direktor. " The joy 
of work," he continues, " which diffuses itself 
throughout these schools must not be placed only 
in the service of intellectual and technical training, 
but no less in the service of moral training, or, as I 
call it, of civic education. For this reason the in- 
struction must be organized as early as possible 
from the standpoint of a free community of labor." ^ 
That is, there is to be team work in the school, 
numbers of students being engaged on a common 
piece of work. This develops the fundamental 
virtues, the essence' of which is, the spirit of social 
service, joy of achievement, and loyalty to the 
work and interests of others. The deep signifi- 
cance of vocational training from the point of view 
of the State is thus revealed. To give to the em- 
bryonic citizen a taste of the arts of leisure and 
refinement, without providing him with skill by 
which to secure these things, is to sow the seeds of 

1 Three Lectures on Vocational Training, by Dr. Georg Kerschen- 
steiner, The Commercial Club of Chicago, 191 1. 



INTRODUCTION 9 

discontent. We try to make good citizens by giv- 
ing formal lessons in civics. But a knowledge of 
the institutions of the country and of the rights 
and duties of the citizens does not in itself suffice 
to make a citizen. " A man may even be an 
admirable teacher of civic science and a first-class 
villain at the same time." ^ But skill in some art 
which he delights to practice, and on which he can 
rely for the means of livelihood, results in the forma- 
tion of those physical, moral, and intellectual habits 
which constitute the texture of noble manhood. 

Speaking of the perfection of workmanship in 
the arts and crafts of the thirteenth and four- 
teenth centuries. Dr. James J. Walsh says: — 

"The supremely interesting feature of this popular educa- 
tion was its effect upon the lives, and minds, and happiness 
of the workmen. Men got up to their work in the morning 
not as a routine occupation in which they did the same things 
over and over again, until they could scarcely do them any 
more, and then came home to rest from fatigue in weariness 
of mind and body. . . . They came to their work with an 
artist's spirit, hopeful that they would be able to express in 
the material what they saw so clearly with their mind's eye . 
It was tiresome working, but the hours were not long, and al- 
ways there was the thought of accomplishment worthy of the 

^ Kerschensteiner, op. cit., p. 14. 



lo HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

cathedral or the abbey or the town hall, worthy to be placed 
beside the masterpieces in the best sense of that dear old word, 
that their fellow workmen of the other gilds were accomplish- 
ing around them. . . . When technical schools can lift men 
up to this plane, then, indeed, there is a chance of happiness 
even for workmen." ^ 

III. America a Mere Stevedore. — The editor 
of Vocational Education ^ recently published an 
editorial on the present economic and commercial 
status of the United States, from which the follow- 
ing is quoted : — 

"It may be a shock to our characteristic American jingo- 
ism to be told, what is undoubtedly true, that with the most 
intelligent body of workers in the world and the most effi- 
cient, if properly trained, we are little else than a huge steve- 
dore, bearing down to the ships of the sea crude and semi- 
crude materials for the employment of the capital, labor, and 
intellect of foreign nations, and that those who are best in- 
formed see within a period, which to the far-sighted is only a 
day, our wonderful country importing these same materials, 
and our producers handicapped by excessive cost. The 
battles of the future between nations will be fought not with 
Dreadnaughts but with the products in the markets of the 
world. The nation will be victor, with all that such a victory 
means to the life of its people, which is able to put the greatest 
amount of brains and skill into its product. The great 

1 Education: How Old the New, by James J. Walsh, New York, Ford- 
ham University Press, 1910, p. J69. 

2 Vol. 2, p. 142. 



INTRODUCTION ii 

commercial nations of the world have already entered upon 
extensive schemes of practical education. Germany boasts 
that within ten years there will be no such thing as an un- 
trained workman, from chimney sweep to high-grade artisan, 
in the empire. Of the 20,000,000 workers in the United 
States, it is safe to say that not 25,000 have any opportunity 
to secure proper education of the kind that Germany gives 
for their callings. We have practically no schools to meet 
their needs. It has been truly said that, in most of the states 
of the Union at least, the only way in which a boy or girl 
can secure an industrial training is to be born feeble-minded 
or commit a crime !" 

IV. The Industrial Revolution. — Two factors 
have operated to modify, practically to revolu- 
tionize, the economic status of the wage earner 
within the last sixty years. These factors are (a) 
the substitution of machinery for hand labor, and 
(b) the aggregation of capital and the subsequent 
concentration of manufacturing into enormous 
establishments and centers of production. From 
the colonial days down to within our own time, 
farming was the most important industry in our 
nation, and the farmer's boy generally expected 
to remain on the farm and was satisfied to do so. 
Many of the manufacturing industries were estab- 
lished on the farm and were thus widely distrib- 
uted. The author recalls, for instance, the fol- 



12 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

lowing industries operated in connection with 
farming, within a radius of a mile or two from his 
own home: tailoring, shoe making and cobbling, 
carriage making, house painting, blacksmithing, 
tinsmithing, cider making, bee culture, carpet weav- 
ing, carpentry, cabinet making, milling, saw-mill- 
ing, harness making. The more enterprising of the 
farmer's sons learned one or another of these trades, 
and when farm work was slack they worked at 
their trade, thus occupying their idle moments and 
increasing their incomes. They were satisfied to 
stay on the farm and happy in the work. 

How was it with the farmer's daughter? She 
worked on the farm and expected nothing else. 
She helped in the dairy, and did all kinds of domes- 
tic service gladly. She even sometimes helped in 
the field during busy times, and " raked the meadow 
sweet with hay." She felt it no disgrace to work 
with her hands, and frequently she took service at 
a neighboring farm, being treated in all respects 
as a member of her employer's family. She learned 
to sew and make her own clothes, and patched the 
coverlid for the bed, which was quilted at a 
" party," the neighboring dames being invited to 
the number of fifteen or twenty. The quilting 



INTRODUCTION 13 

was completed in a single afternoon and ended with 
a feast and dance, to which the husbands and 
swains were admitted. 

Now contrast present conditions with the picture 
just presented. Cities have multiplied and in- 
creased in population, so that now thirty-two per 
cent of all the children enrolled in our public day 
schools live in cities of four thousand inhabitants 
or more. At least half the population lives in 
villages or cities. The city has become the manu- 
facturing and distributing center. The farmer 
shoemaker has disappeared, and the farmer's shoes 
are made in Massachusetts. The handloom and 
the spinning wheel have been sent to the museum. 
The farmer's cloth is woven in New England, and 
his clothes are made in New York by people who 
come from Russia. His wagon comes from South 
Bend, Indiana; his furniture from Michigan; his 
carpet from Philadelphia ; his lumber from Oregon ; 
his flour from Minneapolis. Instead of hiring a 
dozen neighbors to cut his grass and cradle his 
grain, he drives a self-binder through his field which 
drops the sheaf ready to be stacked and garnered. 
If he be one of those prairie farmers of the West, 
he drives twenty horses attached to a monster 



14 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

machine which cuts, threshes, cleans, and bags his 
grain in a single operation. 

The number of manufacturing establishments has 
increased since i860 only fifty per cent; while the 
value of the manufactured product has increased 
over seven hundred per cent, in the same time. This 
means that the average factory turns out fourteen 
times as much as it did fifty years ago. The far- 
mer's sons and daughters are educated in the dis- 
trict school, the township high school, the college, or 
State university. They enter one of the profes- 
sions or drift to the cities to take part in commer- 
cial or industrial pursuits. They no longer like to 
labor with their hands. The boy does not care to 
farm, the girl is not expert in the domestic arts. 
*' It is bad enough," says Commissioner Draper, 
" for an attractive Miss to be unable to make a 
loaf of bread, or broil a steak, or use a needle ; the 
limit is passed when a college makes her such a 
little idiot as to think it is smart to boast of it.'' ^ 

The children of the city are all dreaming of pro- 
fessional or intellectual pursuits. They no longer 
learn trades. Two thirds of them leave to go to 

1 Industrial and Trades Schools, New York State Education Depart- 
ment, 1908, Dr. Andrew S. Draper, Commissioner of Education. 



INTRODUCTION 15 

work before they have graduated from the elemen- 
tary school. They have very little knowledge of 
books, and they do not know how to do anything 
with their hands. The boy becomes a messenger, 
office boy, grocery boy, or butcher's boy ; the girl 
goes to some mercantile or manufacturing estab- 
lishment to begin a dreary life as a wage earner 
in an ill- ventilated and ill-lighted shop or store. ^ 

The wages they receive at first hardly suffice to 
pay the car fare. If they go to a factory, they 
learn to operate a single machine ; but they get 
no comprehensive insight into the manufacturing 
process as a whole. As Emerson says : " Man is 
thus metamorphosed into a thing, into many things. 
The planter, who is Man sent out into the field 
to gather food, is seldom cheered by any idea of 
the true dignity of his ministry. He sees his 
bushel and his cart, and nothing beyond, and sinks 
into the farmer, instead of Man on the farm. 

1 Miss Alice P. Barrows in New York Times, March 2, 1913, reports 
as follows: — 

"Of the 302 children studied, twenty-four were still in school, thirty- 
nine had not gone to work. They had either stayed at home or gone to 
business or trade school. Two hundred and thirty-nine had gone to 
work. They had entered 406 jobs. Of these jobs, ninety-four were 
'outside' errands; nineteen were 'on wagons'; sixteen at newsstands; 
twenty-nine were in department stores; twenty-seven in office work; 
forty-four in miscellaneous inside work, and 177 in manufacturing." 



i6 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

The tradesman scarcely ever gives ideal worth to 
his work, but is ridden by the routine of his craft, 
and the soul is subject to dollars. '^ Children set 
to work at a machine or at some partial process 




From The Survey, April 19, 19 14. 

develop no general intelligence, but only a highly 
specialized skill. When work in their particular 
line is slack, they find themselves out of employ- 
ment, with no power to do anything else. They be- 
come discouraged, and grow up to join the ranks of 
the discontented, the dependent, or the delinquent. 



CHAPTER II 

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE 

I. England 

I. The Beginnings. — In England there was no 
national system of public education until 1870, 
when Parliament enacted a law which insured ele- 
mentary education to all the children in the land. 
In 1770 Burke deplored the tendency shown by 
Parliament to exercise control upon the people, 
whereas " it was designed as a control for the 
people.'' This remark of Burke's reflects the atti- 
tude of the rising democracy of England at the 
time. During the following century the demo- 
cratic forces assumed an aggressive attitude and 
finally triumphed in the Act of 1867, which decided 
once for all that the British government, though 
monarchical in form, should in reality be demo- 
cratic. Then followed the usual corollary, that if 
the people are to rule they must be educated; 
hence three years later Parliament established a 
national system of schools, 
c 17 



i8 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

2. Private Industrial Education, — The begin- 
nings of industrial education in England may be 
traced to Dr. George Birkbeck, professor of natural 
and experimental philosophy at the Andersonian 
Institution in Glasgow. He conceived the idea of 
establishing free lecture courses for the dissemi- 
nation of scientific knowledge among the working 
classes. Between 1815 and 1825 Mechanics' In- 
stitutions were founded in all parts of England to 
the number of two hundred and twenty. Some of 
these were kept alive long enough to be converted 
into technical schools. Others degenerated into 
clubs; still others died. Very few succeeded to 
the extent expected by their founders. The prin- 
cipal reason for the failure of the movement was 
that those who were intended to benefit by the 
lectures did not possess even the rudiments of an 
education; and hence they received little profit 
from their instruction. These lay efforts there- 
fore proved futile, and nothing durable resulted 
except the two or three technical schools into 
which several of the Mechanics' Institutions were 
converted. 

3. Public Industrial Education. — In 1837 the 
Committee of Trade secured the sum of $7500 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE 19 

out of the public treasury for the establishment of 
a central Government School of Design, and in 
1 84 1 several provincial schools of design were organ- 
ized with the aid of government grants. But the 
efforts of the national government in this field were 
desultory and insignificant until 1851. In that 
year an International Exhibition was held in Hyde 
Park. The comparison of products there shown 
proved England to be sadly deficient in manufac- 
tures; and therefore the profits of that exhibition 
were devoted to the purchase of land at South 
Kensington and the opening in 1853 of the " science 
and art department " of the now famous South 
Kensington Museum. The department was created 
to control and organize industrial education. In 
the absence of a system of secondary schools, it 
was necessary to make elementary education the 
foundation of industrial training. But at this 
time all the elementary schools were still provided 
through voluntary effort, and so inadequate was 
the provision made for the education of the people, 
that even in 1870, in the city of London itself, 
scarcely more than fifty per cent of the school 
population found accommodations in the schools. 
In 1856 the Education Department was created, 



20 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

and the Science and Art Department was trans- 
ferred to the new Education Department, which 
henceforth controlled primary and industrial edu- 
cation. In 1870 Parliament, as we have seen, 
passed the law which made provision for primary- 
schools at public expense sufficient in number to 
meet all the national needs. 

During the first half of the nineteenth century 
the secondary schools and universities of England 
provided nothing but classical courses. Their ob- 
ject was to educate gentlemen and scholars. The 
idea of utility never entered into their calculations. 
The students rarely were required to earn a living, 
and so it never occurred to the authorities that it 
was part of their duty to prepare pupils to meet the 
more practical demands of life. 

After the Act of 1870 the Science and Art De- 
partment was commissioned to remodel the classi- 
cal secondary schools, so that they might offer a 
suitable foundation for industrial education. A 
large number of the old grammar schools found 
themselves, after 1870, without the necessary 
financial resources to provide a modern secondary 
education, and so the government decided that 
financial aid should be given to those schools under 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE 21 

the regulations of the Science and Art Department. 
But this Department was only permitted by law 
to aid technical education; consequently it could 
only give assistance to day schools in considera- 
tion of the technical education they provided. 
Special programs were promulgated giving definite 
plans for vocational studies in the upper grades of 
the elementary schools. 

In 1890 an act was passed giving County Coun- 
cils authority to aid industrial education in ele- 
mentary and secondary schools by local taxation. 
The work is always referred to as " science and 
art/' by which is meant the industrial bearing 
of drawing and science. The impetus given in 
this way to industrial drawing, industrial de- 
sign, and industrial physics and chemistry has 
meant much to England in her development of 
manufacturing industries during the last quarter 
of a century. 

(i) Organization. — Since the Education Act of 
1902^ a system of industrial training adapted to 
the needs of all the children has been gradually 
developed. In most of the English cities handi- 

iSee Teachers College Record, Vol. 12, Columbia University, 191 1, 
P-33. 



22 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

craft work for boys and domestic economy for 
girls has been provided, with well-equipped shops 
and laboratories. There is great variety in details 
of curriculum and method, but generally the pur- 
pose of the work is avowedly vocational. In 
London the children of a group of schools go to 
" centers '' for this special work, where the proper 
equipment is found. In 1909 accommodations had 
been thus provided for more than eighty per cent 
of all the children. Handwork in wood and iron 
combined with drawing is given to all boys who 
have reached Grade VI and are eleven years of 
age, as well as to all boys twelve or more years 
old below Grade VI. Girls in Grade V and twelve- 
year-old girls below Grade V become eligible to 
take domestic economy, consisting of cookery, 
laundry work, and housewifery. A full half day 
each week is usually given to industrial work. 
Most of the courses are planned to cover two or 
three years. The city of London has been divided 
into sixty districts, each of which is to have a 
^^ center.'' Up to 191 2, thirty-nine of the schools 
had been established, thirteen with an industrial 
basis, thirteen with a commercial basis, and thir- 
teen with both an industrial and a commercial 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE 23 

basis. ^ Children in grades lower than the fifth 
have the sort of manual training with which Ameri- 
can teachers are familiar ; namely, paper folding, 
cardboard construction, wire work, cord, work, 
modeling, and sewing. 

Most of the well-known secondary schools, like 
Eton and Rugby, have retained their distinctly 
classical character. St. Albans is a notable excep- 
tion, having been " modernized '' by the introduc- 
tion of science, practical mathematics, and indus- 
trial arts. In 1881 the government stimulated 
local initiative by offering grants for the organiza- 
tion of science schools of secondary rank. In 1889 
authority was given to County Councils to assist 
vocational education of all grades by local taxation ; 
and in 1890 Parliament supplemented the efforts 
of local authorities by offering a government grant. 
As a result of this legislation many high schools 
are now offering strong courses in science, drawing, 
and shopwork. Many schools of a distinctly indus- 
trial type, such as the Central School of Arts and 
Crafts in London, have also been established. 

Finally, there are numerous continuation schools 
open chiefly in the evening. London has a total 

1 Vocational Education, Vol. i, p. 176. 



24 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

of two hundred and seventy-four evening schools 
divided into three classes, as follows : — 

(a) Free Schools. — These are like our own pub- 
lic evening schools, offering instruction in the com- 
mon branches, and industrial training, such as 
first aid, home nursing, cooking, laundry work, 
millinery, dressmaking, drawing, wood and metal 
work. 

(b) Ordinary Evening Schools. — In these schools 
more advanced instruction is given in the subjects 
enumerated above, as well as training in commer- 
cial subjects, English, and foreign languages. The 
student pays a shilling a session. These schools 
are open three nights a week from 7.30 to 9.30. 
For commercial courses the fee is two shilHngs 
sixpence. 

(c) Science and Art Centers. — Here work of ele- 
mentary and intermediate grades is offered in 
science and art subjects leading up to advanced 
courses in technical institutions and schools of art. 
The fee is five shillings a session, and the schools 
are open four nights a week. 

The fee " system is a matter for serious consid- 
eration. In New York all evening schools have 
heretofore been absolutely free. But in his report 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE 25 

for 1911-1912, District Superintendent Shiels, in 
charge of evening schools, after a thorough investi- 
gation, recommends ^^ legislation that will permit 
. . . the Board of Education to require fees for 
attendance." Philadelphia charges a fee of fifty- 
cents for elementary schools and one dollar for 
evening high and trade schools. This fee is re- 
turnable if the pupil attends two thirds of the 
sessions. St. Louis charges one dollar per term 
of twenty weeks for all pupils. Boston follows the 
plan of Philadelphia, but collects no fee from com- 
pulsory pupils. Cleveland collects one dollar for 
high schools, returnable after an attendance of 
75 % of sessions, and five dollars for technical 
schools, returnable after an attendance of 85 % of 
sessions. Buffalo follows the system of Philadel- 
phia, but requires an attendance of 75 % of the 
sessions before the fee is returned. Many cities 
charge a fee for supplies or a deposit to insure 
against damage of equipment. Such is the prac- 
tice in Philadelphia, Buffalo, Cincinnati, Detroit, 
Milwaukee, Newark, Minneapolis, Seattle, and 
Tacoma. 



26 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

II. Scotland 

In the opinion of Mr. E. G. Cooley, formerly 
Superintendent of the Chicago Public Schools, 
who has made a thorough study of vocational edu- 
cation in Europe, " only two countries in the world, 
Germany and Scotland, have shown by their works 
that they really believe in education as a factor 
in human efficiency and human happiness. Both 
carry on commerce and industry as a science and 
art and not by rule-of- thumb." ^ 

I. Organization and Supervision. — The Scottish 
Education Act relating to vocational schools pro- 
vides : — 

(i) That it shall be the duty of school boards 
to make suitable p'rovision in continuation classes 
for the further instruction of young persons above 
the age of fourteen years with reference to the 
crafts and industries practiced in the locality. 

(2) That school boards may be penalized by 
withholding appropriations for failure to establish 
continuation classes. 

(3) That school boards may make attendance 
compulsory up to the age of seventeen. 

* Vocational Education, Vol. 2, p. 141. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE 27 

(4) That employers must report to the school 
board at specified times, stating particulars as to 
the hours during which young persons are em- 
ployed. 

(5) That employers must provide time for at- 
tendance of young persons at the continuation 
school, and must count the hours spent in such 
classes in computing the hours of employment of 
such young persons. 

(6) That parents must cooperate with the school 
board in carrying out the law. 

The Scotch Education Department is at present 
engaged in organizing vocational schools under the 
terms of this act. Several features of the law are 
especially significant. It will be noticed, in the 
first place, that continuation schools are in charge 
of the regular school board, and not of any special 
body, as is usually the case in Germany and as is 
provided by the laws of Wisconsin. While the 
act does not make attendance compulsory, it au- 
thorizes compulsion through the school boards. 
Both the employer and the parent are required to 
cooperate in the enforcement of the law. It does 
not provide for day instruction ; but the tendency 
will be to promote this most important phase of 



28 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

the work, since the employer is obHged in any case 
to count school time as a part of the working time. 

2. The Continuation Schools of Edinburgh, — 
The city of Edinburgh has a complete system of 
continuation schools. These are classified under 
four divisions, as follows : — 

Division I, — Open to pupils from fourteen to 
sixteen years of age. The subjects of instruction 
are English, arithmetic, civics, hygiene, drawing, 
woodwork, commercial documents, needlework, 
cookery, laundry work, dressmaking, millinery. 

Division II. — Open to pupils over sixteen, or 
under sixteen if they have certain scholastic quali- 
fications. The studies are English, geography, 
history, civics, foreign languages, commercial sub- 
jects, drawing, modeling, mathematics, science, 
applied mathematics, handwork in wood and iron, 
ambulance work, physical training. The class in 
each subject must have at least one session a week. 
In the case of science, applied mathematics, and 
handwork, the length of the session is at least one 
hour and a half ; in all other cases, one hour. 

Division III. — Open to students over seventeen 
years of age who are certified by His Majesty's 
Inspector to be qualified, etc. Courses in this 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE 29 

division, in order to be recognized, must extend 
over three or more years. The subjects of in- 
struction are designed to fit the pupil for the intel- 
Hgent practice of crafts, industries, or occupations. 
The course includes commercial subjects, art and 
art crafts, engineering of various kinds, naval 
architecture, navigation, building trades, textile 
industries, chemical industries, printing, women's 
industries, agriculture. 

Division IV. — Consists of ^^ auxiliary classes,'' 
including physical culture, military drill, vocal 
music, woodcarving, fancy needlework, elocution. 
These courses are open to all students not included 
under the compulsory provisions of the law. 

Edinburgh has twenty-five of these evening con- 
tinuation schools, six of which are for girls and 
young women, six for boys and young men, ten 
for both sexes, and three for adults over twenty. 
There are 421 teachers, 122 of whom have regular 
teachers' certificates. For the remaining teachers 
the Board of Education provides lectures on the 
art of teaching with demonstration lessons. The 
schools are in session for a period of twenty-six 
weeks from September to March. 

In all the schools except those for adults, a fee 



30 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

of five shillings per session is demanded, which is 
returned at the end of the term to pupils credited 
with satisfactory progress and conduct and 80% 
of attendance. 

Concerning this system of schools Mr. Cooley 
remarks : " One is impressed by the thoroughness 
with which the Scotch have undertaken the work 
of vocational education. While the Germans have 
accomplished more on account of larger experience 
and more favorable conditions, the Scotch in Edin- 
burgh have developed a plan that compares favor- 
ably with that of most German cities." ^ 

III. Germany 

International exhibitions are useful, among other 
things, for teaching nations their shortcomings. 
The beginnings of industrial education in England 
grew out of the exhibition in the Crystal Palace of 
London in 1851. The World's Fair held in Phila- 
delphia in 1876 was destined to have a similar 
effect upon Germany. After viewing the exhibits 
at Philadelphia the courageous German Commis- 
sioner, Professor Reuleaux, cabled Prince Bis- 
marck: "Our goods are cheap but shabby." 

1 Vocational Education, Vol. i, p. 242. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE 31 

This was the stimulus that started a systematic 
campaign in the twenty-six German states for tech- 
nical education. The results, after forty years of 
experiment, are the wonder of the world. 

I. Organization, — With respect to grades, voca- 
tional education of Germany is classified as higher, 
middle, and lower. In the class termed higher are 
21 universities with their professional departments; 
II technical high schools; and 5 commercial high 
schools. Of the middle technical schools there is a 
great variety, some of which are enumerated in the 
following list : — 



Agriculture .... 


II 


Mining and Metal 




Art Industries . . . 


34 


(Prussia) .... 


10 


Building and Engineer- 




Naval Architecture and 




ing Trades .... 


52 


Engineering . . . 


12 


Ceramic Industries 


4 


Navigation .... 


19 


Commerce .... 


429 


Ship Engineers . . . 


8 


Forestry 


5 


Textile Industries . . 


103 


Metal Industries . . . 


12 


Woodworking Industries 


12 



The object of all these middle schools is to train 
experts, foremen, superintendents, owners, managers, 
salesmen, etc. 

Below the middle schools are the lower schools, 
designed to train apprentices, artisans, operatives, 
and to extend the technical knowledge and skill of 



32 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

journeymen and master workmen. The total num- 
ber of such schools, excluding continuation schools 
of an industrial character for young women, is about 
25,000. The number of students is 1,336,000. The 
annual expenditure for the support of the lower 
schools is $5,236,000.-^ 

In Germany such schools are called Foribildungs- 
schukj which term has generally been translated 
continuation school or improvement school. Several 
writers make a distinction between the two English 
equivalents, using the term continuation when they 
refer to schools which merely continue the teaching 
of the common school, and the term improvement 
when they refer to an industrial school.^ An Im- 
perial Law affecting all parts of Germany forbids 
the employment of children under seventeen in 
factories and workshops. A similar law decrees 
that masters in any branch of industry are bound to 
allow their workers under eighteen to attend an 
officially recognized continuation school for the time 
fixed as necessary by the local authorities. By the 
same law the Local Council is empowered to make 
attendance at a continuation school compulsory for 

^ U. S. Commissioner of Education, Report, 1913, Vol. i, p. 818. 
2 See The Industrial Improvement Schools oj Wurttemberg, by A. A. 
Snowden, Teachers College, N. Y., 1907. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE 33 

all male workers under eighteen. In South Ger- 
many there is no city or town, however small, with- 
out one such school, at least for boys. In North 
Germany, Essen is the only larger town in which 
such a school is wanting. In Bavaria, Wurttem- 
berg. Saxony, Baden, and Hesse, attendance at a 
continuation school is compulsory for all youths up 
to the age of sixteen, seventeen, or eighteen. 

Dr. Kerschensteiner expresses the opinion that a 
properly organized continuation school " must ex- 
tend to the eighteenth year of every boy or girl who 
is not being educated in a higher school.'' ^ The 
reason he gives for holding such an opinion is based 
on the public good. " It is of no advantage," he 
says, " to a constitutional State to make its oppor- 
tunities of culture accessible to only a small per- 
centage.'' Mr. John M. Shrigley, Principal of the 
WiUiamson Free School, agrees with Dr. Kerschen- 
steiner, as to the need of keeping the pupil until he 
is eighteen, but for a different reason. He says : 
" If a school proposes to graduate journeymen, the 
pupils must be sufficiently matured physically and 
mentally on graduation to do men's work. They 

* Three Lectures on Vocational Training, by Dr. Georg Kerschen- 
steiner, The Commercial Club of Chicago, 191 1, p. 17. 



34 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

must have the appearance as well as the qualities 
of manhood to merit a man^s pay." ^ 

Everywhere the schools receive the willing sup- 
port of governments. The State subsidies for con- 
tinuation schools in Prussia increased from half a 
million marks in 1885 to three million marks in 
1908. The number of pupils in the schools of 
Prussia during the same period increased from 58,000 
to 360,000. In 191 1 the State appropriations for 
continuation schools in all Germany was six and 
a half million marks. ^ In Wurttemberg a law was 
passed in 1906 requiring every town of more than 
five thousand inhabitants to organize continuation 
schools for all apprentices in commerce, industry, 
and trade. Bavaria is preparing a similar law to 
transform the compulsory Sunday schools for ap- 
prentices, which have existed for the last hundred 
years, with two hours of instruction, into continua- 
tion schools with six hours of instruction.^ 

2. Supervision. — The vocational schools of Ger- 
many are not under the direction of the Minister 

* The Organization and Management of Trade Schools, National Society 
for the Promotion of Industrial Education, 1908. 

2 U. S. Commissioner of Education, Report, 1913, Vol. i, p. 818. 

^ Three Lectures on Vocational Education, Georg Kerschensteiner, 
The Commercial Club, Chicago, 191 1, p. 9. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE 35 

of Public Instruction, but under the Minister of 
Commerce and Public Works. They are not an 
organic part of the state system of public education. 
They admit pupils only after the age of fourteen. 
The continuation schools are day, evening, or Sun- 
day schools. The course of study is not uniform 
throughout the empire or even throughout a State, 
but is left to the option of the local community. 
The schools are not subject to uniform regulation. 
When a community has established a school of this 
kind and can show that it meets a local need, the 
central government is asked for a subsidy, which is 
rarely denied. Industrial schools of secondary grade 
are all day and evening schools and are located 
chiefly in centers of industry. 

3. The Continuation Schools of Munich. — Munich 
supplies an example of the most successful and com- 
plete system of vocational training to be found 
even in Germany. A study of the organization and 
management of these schools is therefore one of the 
necessary steps to a proper understanding of this 
form of education. The origin of the continuation 
schools in Munich dates back to 1875, when two of 
them were founded, one for apprentices and one for 
journeymen. The former was made compulsory 



36 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

for boys between thirteen and sixteen, and gave from 
five to eight hours of instruction per week. No 
regard was paid to the pupil's trade. The school 
was open for five hours on Saturday and three hours 
on one afternoon of the week. The subjects were 
reading, writing, arithmetic, and drawing. It will 
be seen that they were substantially identical in aim 
with our evening classes for common branches. 

Similar institutions arose all over Germany. But 
their barrenness soon became notorious. They have 
nearly all been replaced by trade continuation 
schools. Every child is now trained with reference 
to his particular craft. Munich has a population 
of 580,000 and has 70,000 children in her elementary 
day schools. Education in common schools is com- 
pulsory for girls up' to the age of thirteen, and for 
boys up to the age of fourteen. The continuation 
school follows the elementary school, and is com- 
pulsory for boys to the age of eighteen, and for girls 
to sixteen. They give from eight to ten hours of 
instruction to boys and six hours to girls. They 
charge no fees. The compulsory continuation school 
is followed in turn by the optional continuation 
school for persons over eighteen, which charges a 
fee of from fifty cents to a dollar per month and 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE 37 

gives twelve hours of instruction weekly. The 
attendance of the several kinds of schools in 1910 
was as follows : — 

Compulsory continuation schools for boys .... 9400 

Compulsory continuation schools for girls .... 7500 

Voluntary continuation schools for young men . . . 2600 

Voluntary continuation schools for young women . . 3700 

Munich has about one eighth of the population 
of New York City. If, therefore, New York made 
the same provision for the training of her young 
people that Munich has made, we should have in 
our several day and evening vocational schools 
75,200 boys between the ages of fourteen and eight- 
een ; 60,000 girls between the ages of thirteen and 
sixteen; 20,800 young men over eighteen; and 
29,600 young women over sixteen ; or a total of 
185,600 persons. What New York is actually doing 
at public expense is shown by the following table of 
registers of the several day and evening schools in 
which vocational instruction is given : — 



Mentally Defective and Cripples (1913) 
Vocational Day Schools (19 13) . . . 

Day High Schools (1913) 

Evening Elementary Schools (1913) . . 
Evening High and Trade Schools (19 13) 



3,000 

2,096 

18,488 

10,879 

i3>989 
48,452 



38 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

This is 26% of what is required to bring New 
York up to the Munich standard. Approximately 
52,000 girls receive lessons in cooking in the day 
elementary and high schools and some 52,000 boys 
are getting shop work in the elementary schools. 
All the girls of the first six years have lessons in 
raffia and cord work or sewing. Vocational exer- 
cises form part of the program of our vacation 
schools, with 18,723 on register (1913) and of the 
vacation playgrounds having an average attendance 
of 133,000 (1913). 

There are, in addition to these public institutions, 
numerous private schools giving vocational training 
to the youth of the city, of which the following is a 
partial list : — 

(i) Baron de Hirsch Trade School. 

(2) Clara de Hirsch Trade School. 

(3) Teachers College. 

(4) Pratt Institute. 

(5) Cooper Union. 

(6) All the branches of Y. M. C. A. and Y. W. C. A.^ 

(7) Hebrew Technical Institute. 

1 During the school year 191 2-1913 the Y. M. C. A. of the United States 
gave 120 vocational courses to 72,842 employed men and boys, who 
paid $714,035 in tuition fees. — Report, U. S. Commissioner of Educa- 
tion, 1913, Vol. I, p. 579. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE 39 

(8) Hebrew Technical School for Girls. 

(9) Henrietta Trade School (Negro). 

(10) Italian Evening Trade School. 

(11) Mechanics' Institute (evening industrial). 

(12) New York Industrial Evening School (Negro). 

(13) New York Trade School. 

(14) Pascal Institute (Girls). 

(15) Preparatory Trade School. 

(16) R. H. Hoe & Co. Apprenticeship School. 

(17) St. George's Evening Trade School. 

(18) New York University School of Accounts 
and Finance. 

(19) Young Men's Hebrew Association. 

(20) Brooklyn Evening Technical and Trade 
School. 

From the above list it is apparent that private 
initiative has supplied a part of the need for special 
education. But putting together all that is now 
done through both public and private agencies, it 
is doubtful whether New York offers more than half 
of the opportunity for vocational education that is 
found in many a European city. 

(i) Supervision. — A trade school is established 
in Munich for every trade that has twenty-five or 
more apprentices. At present fifty-two trades are 



40 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

provided for. The trade schools are grouped under 
the supervision of nine head masters or directors, 
with subdirectors for each single school. Trades 
with a great number of apprentices have at their 
disposal several schools in different parts of the town 
to avoid the necessity of extended travel. The only 
exception is that twelve hundred commercial ap- 
prentices are housed in a single building in the center 
of the city. 

{a) Employers^ Associations. — To most trade 
schools is attached an association of employers, 
who bear the expense of school material, take part 
in the arrangement of the courses of instruction, 
propose technical teachers, assist in the supervision 
of practical subjects, cooperate in the examination 
of apprentices, and. generally act as promoters of 
the school. 

{h) Continuation School Board, — Each continua- 
tion school possesses its own local school board of 
five members, consisting of the head master of the 
school, a member of the municipality, and three 
employers of the trade. It is the business of this 
board to manage the affairs of the school, and es- 
pecially to keep a watch on the regularity of the 
attendance. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE 41 

(c) Cost of Continuation Schools. — The annual 
expenditure for the maintenance of trade schools 
for boys and men, aside from building expenses, is 
$225,000, or about $19 per pupil; whereas the cost 
of day elementary education is $23 per pupil, and 
of secondary education, $50 per pupil. The ele- 
mentary school is supported by the town; the 
secondary school is supported chiefly by the State ; 
and the continuation school is supported by the 
town and State together. The entire cost of the 
continuation schools for girls and women, amount- 
ing to $100,000 per annum, is borne by the town 
alone. 

A comparison at this point is interesting. Munich 
pays $19 per pupil to educate men and boys in 
their trades; New York pays $180.45 P^i" pupil to 
train a pupil in its Vocational School for Boys. 
Munich pays $9 per pupil to educate girls in their 
vocations; New York pays $75.65 to train a pupil 
in the Manhattan Trade School for Girls. Munich 
pays $23 per pupil for elementary education ; New 
York pays $34.78. Munich pays $50 per year for 
a secondary pupil; New York pays $92.85. A 
thorough investigation of the cost of industrial 
education in the United States by H. C. Brandon 



42 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

shows that the median cost of such training in the 

present schools is $4.80 per pupil per month, or $48 

per year of ten months. The proportion of expense 

devoted to teaching and supervision is nearly the 

same as in : common schools, or 73 % of the total 

expenditure.^ 

IV. France 

I. Origin of Educational System. — Rousseau is 
the father of modern French education. As is well 
known, the democratic principles expressed with so 
much power by this genius were the leaven that 
permeated the masses and overthrew monarchial 
institutions in France and even to a considerable 
extent created the motive power of the American 
Revolution. The duty of educating man as man, 
apart from all considerations of social organization, 
was the thought expressed in the £mile. During 
the nineteenth century we see this principle con- 
tending with the demand that education should 
confirm the existing social organization. We find 
the one or the other system prevailing as the prin- 
ciples of democracy rose and fell. 

In 1 791, at the opening of the Revolution, the 
Constitution provided that " there shall be created 

^ Teachers College Record, Vol. 12, p. 60. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE 43 

and organized a public instruction, common to all 
citizens, gratuitous as regards those parts of educa- 
tion indispensable to all men." But nothing more 
was done at the time. The First Republic was so 
busy fighting for its life that there was no time left 
for organizing schools. 

In 1808 Napoleon founded his Imperial Univer- 
sity, a body charged with all the pubHc education 
of the Empire. In 181 5 Napoleon was overthrown, 
but his system of education was continued. Little 
was, however, accomplished except that religious 
organizations were authorized to supply teachers 
for elementary schools. 

With the accession of Louiis-Philippe in 1830 the 
real work of education may be said to have begun. 
This monarchy depended upon the support of the 
middle classes, and consequently elementary schools 
were increased so that in eighteen years, from 1832 
to 1850, the registration rose from about two million 
to nearly three and a half miUion, and illiteracy was 
reduced from forty-seven per cent to thirty-five per 
cent. 

2. Organization of Public Instruction. — In 
France, education is divided into four grades, as 
follows : — 



44 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

(i) Infant schools for children from two to six 
years of age. 

(2) Primary schools for children from six to four- 
teen years of age. 

(3) Secondary schools for children from eight to 
twenty years of age. 

(4) Universities. 

The infant and primary schools constitute elemen- 
tary education. In 191 1 they registered 5,600,000 
pupils, or 14.3 % of the population. The register 
of the secondary schools is about 125,000, and of 
the universities about 41,000. The population of 
France is 37,000,000. 

3. Vocational Education. — In addition to the 
preceding schools, which constitute the national 
system under the Ministry of Education, France 
has a vast and complex system of technical and indus- 
trial education, partly of private and local origin, 
but assisted by the State, and controlled by the Min- 
istries of Commerce, Agriculture, etc. 

(i) Elementary. — Industrial work is given in every 
elementary school of the country. Since 1882 such 
exercises have been compulsory. In rural districts 
and small villages the emphasis is upon agriculture ; 
in other schools, upon manual arts and industries. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE 45 

In the larger cities workshops are provided in which 
boys have exercises in wood and metal work. The 
girls have sewing, lace making, millinery, garment 
making, cookery, and sometimes silk culture. In 
other parts of the country constructive work is given 
in the ordinary classroom. It consists of concrete 
geometry in connection with arithmetic, clay work, 
paper folding, cardboard construction, etc. This 
is just about the sort of construction we have been 
familiar with in the schools of America during the past 
decade. In Paris the work in industrial arts is much 
above the average of the rest of the country. There 
are in the capital about two hundred shops for wood- 
work and some sixty for metal work. The the- 
oretical part of this work is taught by regular 
teachers ; but the practice is taught by craftsmen who 
go from school to school. The exercises are formal, 
consisting of prescribed models given in logical order 
for the purpose of teaching sequence of tool processes 
and manual skills. The ideal is that of formal dis- 
cipline, which controls also our own scheme of 
manual training as found in the schools to-day. 
The teaching of the industrial arts as a preparation 
for the vocation of the pupil is still unreaHzed in 
these schools. 



46 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

(2) Practical Continuation Schools of Commerce 
and Industry. — France formerly had a system of 
schools known in that country as " advanced " or 
" higher " primary, corresponding with the first two 
years of our high school. These higher primary 
schools were founded by Guizot during the reign 
of Louis-Philippe. Guizot's object was to restore 
the institutions overthrown by the Revolution, not 
on the democratic basis of the Revolution, nor on the 
autocratic basis of Napoleon, but on the plutocratic 
basis. He saw stability for the government in the 
wealthy middle class. The higher primary schools 
showed little progress for the first twenty years; 
but from 1865 to 1872 great improvement was made. 
In 1880 a law was enacted " for grafting technical 
instruction upon existing primary schools.'' ^ The 
higher primary schools were accordingly consolidated 
with the elementary schools, and vocational subjects 
were introduced into the course. Upon graduation 
from the elementary school at thirteen, which is the 
limit of the compulsory age, the pupil was admitted 
to a three-year course in the higher primary. Work- 
shops were provided, and from five to seven and a half 
hours a day were devoted to manual instruction of a 

1 Teachers College Record, Vol. 12, p. 30. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE 47 

vocational character. In addition to handwork the 
boys learned drawing, geometry, mechanics, French, 
history, geography, biology, physics, chemistry, 
arithmetic, accounts. The girls had the same 
academic studies, plus domestic economy, sewing, 
cutting, and fitting. 

In 1892 an important departure was taken, when 
these advanced primary schools were detached from 
the department of education and placed under the 
authority of the Minister of Commerce and Industry. 
Since then the schools have been known as '^ prac- 
tical schools of commerce and industry." In taking 
this step France has followed the well-nigh universal 
practice of placing vocational schools in charge of 
separate governing bodies. The most important 
feature of vocational education is its close relation to 
industrial needs and standards. The educational 
authorities in charge of cultural schools are not suffi- 
ciently familiar with trade conditions to make voca- 
tional schools practical; hence it has been found 
necessary to provide separate agencies for the control 
of trade education. 

(3) National Secondary Schools of Arts and Trades, 
— Above the Practical Schools of Commerce and 
Industry are a class of technical high schools known 



48 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

as National Schools of Arts and Trades. The object 
of the school is to train leaders for crafts and com- 
merce, foremen for shops, manufacturers versed in 
the practice of the mechanic arts. The theoretic 
studies include such subjects as these : algebra, 
geometry, literature, technology, geography, survey- 
ing, physics, chemistry, mechanics, history, commer- 
cial law, bookkeeping, electricity. Practical work 
is carried on in four kinds of shops; namely, the 
fitting shop, the smithy, the pattern shop, and the 
foundry. 

(4) Schools of Agriculture, — France has a more or 
less rural population. It is a country of small 
holdings, one person in every four being a small 
proprietor in some communes. The pick of the vil- 
lage school, therefore, are the sons of the peasants ; 
and these children are all more or less familiar with 
farm work. The object of the French agricultural 
school is not so much to teach the practical details 
of farming as to teach the application of science to 
agriculture. Agricultural schools are in charge of 
the Ministry of Agriculture. They are graded as 
elementary, higher primary, secondary. As to sub- 
jects they include plain farming, silkworm culture, 
fruit culture, the dairy, bird culture, forestry, and 
veterinary schools. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE 49 

(5) Summary. — From this brief account we see 
that France has a vast system of elementary educa- 
tion ending at the age of sixteen, which is complete 
in itself and does not lead to any higher grade of 
school. The test of its success, according to French 
ideals, is that it tends to keep children in the pro- 
fessions or occupations of their parents. The object 
of the educational policy is to " catch those who are 
inclined to pursue ambitions which they have little 
chance of satisfying, and put them on the path which 
leads to contentment. This was most easily achieved 
by spreading the net of technical education over the 
primary school.'^ ^ Whatever we may think of the 
wisdom of this procedure as applicable to white 
children in our own country, its application to negro 
education in the South would go far to solve one of 
the most perplexing of our problems. 

^Ware, Educational Foundations of Trade and Industry, Appleton, 
1901, p. 224. 



CHAPTER III 

INDUSTRIAL F5. MANUAL TRAINING 

I. A Retrospect. — For a quarter of a century the 
ideals, purposes, and curricula of the public schools 
in America have been examined with extreme 
thoroughness and great earnestness. The outcome 
of the study has been increased attention to English 
and nature study and the introduction of manual 
training. There are thirteen hundred city and town 
school systems in the United States. Of these about 
one half are teaching some form of constructive 
activity. In twelve per cent of the systems hand- 
work extends through all the grades of the elementary 
school and in about one hundred cases it extends to 
the high school. Of the six hundred school systems 
having manual training, three hundred give less than 
half an hour a week to it; and only thirty-seven 
devote as much as half an hour a day to it. 

From these statistics it is plain that the great edu- 
cational value claimed by the early advocates of 
manual training have not been realized by the 

so 



INDUSTRIAL VS. MANUAL TRAINING 51 

American people. As practiced heretofore, hand- 
work was employed and justified as a means of 
manumental training, — the development of the 
mind through motor processes. It was supposed 
to give a child the use of his hands, to nourish the 
brain by increasing the circulation in the motor area, 
to beget reverence for manual industry, and culti- 
vate the moral sense by the habit of accuracy and 
attention to details. In short, manual training rests 
upon'the theory of formal or general discipHne and 
the personal culture ideal of the great educational 
reformers, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Herbart, and 
Froebel. This theory has recently been sharply 
questioned, with the result that the superstructure 
of educational architecture is beginning to totter 
for want of a firm foundation. The ideal of personal 
culture is giving way to the demand for efficiency. 
The difference in point of view is like the ancient 
controversy between the theologies of St. Paul and 
St. James. St. Paul's position is that we are justi- 
fied by faith and saved by grace ; but St. James says : 
" Shew me thy faith without works, and I will shew 
thee my faith by my works." The manual training 
advocate is now being challenged to prove his faith 
by his works. For thirty years he has been taken at 



52 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

his word. Now the spirit of scientific management 
demands an accounting. The question it puts to 
manual training is, " What can you show for the time 
you have occupied on the school program?" 

II. A Study in Values. — It is an embarrassing 
question. So far as I am aware, no scientific study 
to determine the educational value of manual train- 
ing has ever been undertaken. The whole case rests 
upon opinion, assumption, and faith. Dr. Ernest 
Beckwith Kent ^ has published the results of a study 
on the ^^ constructive interests of children.'' This 
gives us some information as to what value manual 
training has from the child's point of view.^ Dr. 
Kent asked 200 children in the Horace Mann and 
Ethical Culture Schools to write a list of things they 
had made spontaneously outside of school during a 
year. The answers were classified in various ways. 
The following are some of the facts and conclusions 
of the investigation : — 

I. The articles made fall chiefly under the heads 
of play imitation, play utility, utility, and useful 
gifts. 

1 The Constructive Interests of Children, by Ernest Beckwith Kent, 
Ph.D., Teachers College, New York, 1907. 

2 A number of similar studies have been made by others ; see Pedagogi- 
cal Seminary y Vol. 6. 



INDUSTRIAL VS. MANUAL TRAINING 53 

2. Play utility is the dominant interest at all the 
ages tested ; namely, from eight to fourteen. 

3. Nearly half of a boy's voluntary construction 
are things used in his play; and one third of such 
playthings are boats. 

4. The doll is the center of practically all of a girl's 
play construction. 

5. The toy is the boy's leading product and the 
useful gift that of a girl. 

6. We have no positive evidence that the school 
handwork affects a child's general motor control 
seriously, or even appreciatively. 

7. No one has taken the trouble to ascertain 
whether the best student excels in handwork, or the 
pupil who is slow at his books. 

8. We do not know the economic value of manual 
work; that is, we do not know whether the adult 
efficiency of men in any walk of life is affected appre- 
ciably by the handwork now found in the schools. 

From all this we are obliged to admit that in the 
matter of manual training we have hitherto walked 
by faith and not by sight. In the face of the demand 
for specific vocational training we shall be unable 
much longer to hold the ground for manual training 
of the old type. 



54 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

III. Changes in Manual Work. — The generalized 
exercises which constituted the early form of manual 
training in this country have been undergoing a 
gradual change. The boy no longer learns to saw, 
and plane, and hammer, and chisel ; but he employs 
these processes in the making of some useful article 
whose value he can appreciate. This transformation 
has been stimulated by Professor Dewey's vigorous 
demand that school work shall appeal to the child 
as being worth while here and now, rather than useful 
in the dim and distant future. It is true that, from 
the adult's standpoint, the child is preparing for life ; 
but from his own viewpoint he is already living his 
life. To the pupil the school is life and not a prepa- 
ration for life. When manual training was first 
offered as a school study, its friends took pains to dis- 
claim all practical or vocational aims. It was to 
be a mode of training the mind, and not a means of 
livelihood. These arguments by slow degrees have 
been abandoned. The boy no longer makes a 
mortise-and-tenon joint as an exercise in accuracy 
and honesty. He makes chairs, desks, tables, coat 
hangers, flower stands, and a host of other useful 
articles. The school shop now resembles the abode 
of the cabinetmaker. Similar changes have oc- 



INDUSTRIAL VS. MANUAL TRAINING 55 

curred in the manual work of girls. Sewing began as 
an exercise in learning certain stitches for patching 
and garment making. The material employed con- 
sisted of remnants only. At present our girls make 
real garments, first for dolls, later for themselves. 
Thirty thousand dresses were made last year by the 
girls in the New York public schools. Cooking has 
always been more practical than other manual work 
of the schools. The change in this case is from the 
mere laboratory demonstration by the teacher to 
individual equipment and cooking by the girl her- 
self. Numerous activities involved in housekeeping 
and home making have been added to the course, 
so that we no longer speak of the activities of the 
school kitchen as mere cooking, but call it domestic 
science, domestic art, or household arts. Similar 
modifications have been made in oak-tag construc- 
tion, raffia, and cord work. The value of manual 
work in paper has always been, in my judgment, 
doubtful. It involves fine measurements, which 
are difficult for small children ; it consumes a great 
deal of time ; it fails to exercise the inventive faculty ; 
and it results in a product that has only play utility 
at best, and little of that, on account of the long and 
painful process of construction. But with all these 



56 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

improvements, we have by no means answered the 
important question : — 

IV. The Place of Industries in Public Education. 
— Granted that manual training as practiced in the 
recent past was a mistake, and that the value of the 
present constructive exercises is problematical, what 
form of manual work or industrial work is desirable 
and possible in the several grades? This problem 
was set by the National Education Association for a 
special committee of its body, which reported in 
July, 1910.^ The chairman of the committee was 
Mr. Jesse D. Burks, and the secretary was Mr. 
Charles R. Richards. The report is divided into 
three major parts as follows : (a) Industries in the 
Elementary School; (b) Intermediate Industrial 
Schools ; (c) Technical Education in High Schools. 

I. Industries in the Elementary School. — (i) The 
Primary Grades. — All modern psychologists agree 
that the constructive interest of children is one of the 
strongest of impulses. An appeal to this motive 
constitutes one of the most effective means of arous- 
ing interest in any subject. Professor Dewey be- 
lieves that the entire course of study should be 

1 Report of the Committee on the Place of Industries in Public Educa- 
tion, N. E. A., Winona, Minn., 1910. 



INDUSTRIAL VS. MANUAL TRAINING 57 

evolved out of constructive processes. From this 
point of view manual work is not a subject, but is 
the very core of the curriculum, giving life and value 
to all subjects. It has further significance as an 
application of the principle that learning should be 
by doing, and as an application of what is learned 
to life situations. Speaking of the two famous pil- 
lars in the Piazzetta of Venice, Ruskin says : " You 
must find time for a little practical cutting of capi- 
tals yourself, before you will discern the beauty of 
these. There is nothing like a little work with the 
fingers for teaching the eyes." ^ The late Colonel 
Parker classified all educative activities as attention, 
jtidgment, and expression. Construction he treated 
as one of the nine modes of expression. 

The same analysis that has been made of the 
psychological need for constructive work applies to 
the study of industry. Industries represent that 
phase of life in which construction finds its principal 
use. The committee hopes that constructive work 
and the study of industry in the elementary school 
will in future be of such a character as to enable the 
pupil to make a wise choice of avocation. At its 
meeting in Chicago in 191 2, the National Education 

^St. Mark^s Rest, by John Ruskin, Merrill and Batzer, New York, p. 15. 



58 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

Association adopted the following resolution, which 
embodies this same idea : 

''Resolved, That the courses of study in our elementary 
schools should be so enriched as to make it possible to 
discern the tastes, tendencies, and abilities of the child 
previous to the time when vocational decisions are to be 
made." 

According to the last United States Census Report 
the principal industries with the number of male 
employees are as follows : — 

Group Trade Number of Males Employed 

Carpentry 600,000 

Woodworking 350,000 

Masonry, stoneworking, and con- 
crete construction .... 220,000 
Painting and glazing .... 270,000 
Plumbing and pipe fitting . . . 100,000 

Structural iron work 100,000 

Foundry work 100,000 

Machine-shop work 280,000 

Slacksmithing . . . . . . 220,000 

Engineers and firemen .... 400,000 

Weaving of textiles 250,000 

Clothing manufacture .... 170,000 

Shoemaking and leather work . . 200,000 

, Other metal working 80,000 

IV. Electrical work 100,000 

V. Printing 140,000 

VI. Agriculture 9,000,000 

VII. Mining 500,000 

There are, of course, many subdivisions of each of 
these industries which give rise to additional trades. 
What particular trades shall be studied and taught 



I. Building trades 



II. Metal and machine 
trades 



III. Machine-operating 
trades 



INDUSTRIAL VS. MANUAL TRAINING 59 

in a given community will depend upon the prevailing 
occupations of the place. Some of the concrete 
suggestions of the committee are given below : — 

(i) An example of the study of the textile indus- 
try, second year, Horace Mann School, New York. 

(2) An example of candle making, third year, 
Francis W. Parker School, Chicago. 

(3) Study of a local dairy, fourth grade ; lumber 
industry, fifth grade; Teachers College, University 
of Missouri. 

(4) Garden work, Francis W. Parker School, 
Chicago, first three years. 

(5) Study of transportation, third grade, Francis 
W. Parker School, Chicago. 

(2) The Grammar Grades. — Among the sug- 
gestions offered by the committee are these: — 

(a) Study of ceramic industries, from a course of 
study in Manual Training, by C. L. Boone, Manual 
Training Magazine y December, 1908, and February, 
1909. 

(b) Study of a machine shop, sixth grade, Horace 
Mann School, New York. 

(c) Study of printing, from " A School Print 
Shop," by L. W. Wahlstrom, Manual Training 
Magazine, December, 1908. 



6o HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

{d) Study of a foundry, from " Industrial Studies 
in Manual Training/' by E. E. MacNary, Proceed- 
ings, Eastern Manual Training Association, 1909. 

(3) Special Industrial Classes. — In several places 
special industrial classes have been authorized for 
the purpose of trying out such suggestions as have 
been made with reference to vocational work. 
Thus, the Boston School Committee, on May 6, 
1907, passed the following order : " That the Super- 
intendent be authorized to designate one or more 
boys' elementary schools in which the course of 
study may be experimentally modified for the pur- 
pose of determining in what way these schools may 
become more effective in training pupils for indus- 
trial pursuits, while at the same time maintaining 
their efiiciency for preparation for high schools." 

The Jamaica Plain School 

In accordance with this authority the Superin- 
tendent selected the Agassiz School of Jamaica 
Plain. The experiment has been going on for about 
seven years. The nature of the departure is as 
follows : — 

There are classes in the sixth grade giving ^yq 
hours a week to manual training and drawing with- 



INDUSTRIAL VS. MANUAL TRAINING 6i 

out losing academic rank. The classes are general 
industrial or work classes. The product which they 
turn out is such as can be utiHzed by the school 
supply department. 

There are also classes made up of boys and girls 
fourteen years of age or over, selected from the 
lower grades. These have drawing and construc- 
tion work for periods varying from ten to twenty 
hours a week, plus arithmetic, language, and other 
academic work. The manual exercises consist of 
wood-working, cabinet-making, metal-work, sheet- 
metal work, book-binding, and printing. 

There are classes open to graduates of the ele- 
mentary school similar to those just described. 

Finally, there are classes in high schools where 
pupils take academic studies along with an intensive 
study of some industry, like jewelry. 

(4) A Study of Elimination. — Professor Edward 
L. Thorndike has made a study of pupil elimination 
in twenty- three cities and thirty-four colleges which 
shows some startling results.^ From this investiga- 
tion it appears that of 100 pupils who enter an ele- 
mentary school, 4 leave before reaching the fourth 
grade; 9 leave in the fourth grade; 13 leave in the 

^ Bulletin No. 4, 1907, U. S. Bureau of Education. 



62 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

fifth grade; 14 leave in the sixth grade; 14 leave 
in the seventh grade ; 13 leave in the eighth grade. 

That is to say, two-thirds drop out by the way 
and one-third remain to complete the course. 

The amount of elimination based upon the regis- 
tration of the several grades is as follows : — 

Grade 4 = 10 % Grade 6 = 20.6 % 

Grade 5 = 16 % Grade 7 = 26 % 

Grade 8 = 32.5 % 

First Year in High School = 37 % 
Second Year in High School = 29.4 % 
Third Year in High School = 33.3 % 

First Year in College = 22 % 
Second Year in College = 11 % 
Third Year in College = 5 % 

Only about a third of all the children graduate from 
the elementary school, less than 10 % graduate 
from the high school, and less than 5 % graduate 
from a college. 

The significance of these statistics may be more 
vividly realized by stating the facts in another way. 
For instance, " if the school children in this coun- 
try under eighteen years of age were placed in a 



INDUSTRIAL VS. MANUAL TRAINING 63 

straight line, allowing one foot of space for each 
child, the line would stretch from the upper end of 
Maine across the continent to the lower end of 
California. If those leaving school at or about the age 
of fourteen — nearly all of them to become bread- 
winners — were taken from the line, only that por- 
tion extending across the state of California would 
remain."-^ 

Up to the age of thirteen, the amount of elimina- 
tion in the United States is about the same as in 
Germany, France, and England; but the United 
States is far more successful than the other coun- 
tries named in retaining children after thirteen for 
a much longer and more extensive schooling. 

There is great variability among cities in the 
amount of elimination. The percentage of children 
entering school who continue to the eighth grade 
ranges from 14.4 in Baltimore to 72 in Worcester. 
New York's percentage in Thorndike's table is 33.7; 
Maiden's, 76.5; Springfield's, 53.4; Newark's, 25. 
The range of children who remain to graduate from 
the high school is from 2.3 % in Baltimore to 26.4 % 
in Worcester. Thorndike is of the opinion that the 

1 Professor Herman Schneider in The Annals of the American Academy 
of Political and Social Science, Philadelphia, Vol. 33, No. i, p. 50. 



64 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

superiority of one city over another in the retention 
of pupils is apparently caused far more by the 
nature of the population than by the character and 
administration of the schools.^ 

Still, it is assumed that one important cause of 
elimination is incapacity for work, and lack of 
interest in the kind of work required by the present 
course of study. For this reason there has been a 
more or less general demand for an " intermediate " 
school, which shall offer vocational training for the 
large numbers who from choice or necessity now 
drop out of the grades. 

^ The accuracy of Dr. Thorndike's figures on elimination has been 
seriously questioned by Dr. Ayres, who finds that the ''general tendency 
of American school systems is to carry all of the children through the 
fifth grade, half of them to the final elementary grade, and one in ten to 
the final year of the high School." — Laggards in Our Schools, by Leonard 
P. Ayres, Charities Publication Committee, New York, 1909, pp. 65-72. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL 

I. Differentiated Programs of Study for the Last 
Two Years of the Elementary School. — The wisdom 
of giving all children in the elementary school the 
same training for the entire eight years of the 
course is now being questioned. Equal opportunity 
for all does not necessarily mean the same form of 
education for all. The European practice of pro- 
moting class distinctions by a system of fees and a 
sharp differentiation of curricula at the end of the 
fourth school year, is manifestly not in conformity 
with the expressed principles of American democ- 
racy. But a choice of courses at the end of the 
sixth school year, free to all alike, is not a denial of 
equal educational opportunity. On the contrary, 
it is creating a diversity of opportunity, whereby 
different t3rpes and degrees of talent may find fitting 
modes of expression and development, instead of 
being confined to a single form of training. In 
order to bring about the proposed reform it would 

F 65 



66 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

be necessary to establish an intermediate school, 
covering the seventh and eighth years of the ele- 
mentary school, and possibly the first and second 
years of the high school. This would provide a 
varied program of cultural and vocational studies 
so combined that the pupil could prepare either for 
the high school or for some vocational employment. 
It would also provide opportunity for two years of 
study beyond the elementary school, and would 
thus absorb that large body of pupils who now go 
for a year or two to high school and then drop out, 
either for want of interest in study or from economic 
necessity.-^ The high schools would then be re- 
lieved of the vast numbers that crowd the entering 
classes and go no further. The intermediate school 
would be better adapted to their needs than the 
first and second years of high school; for these 
courses are merely a preparation for what is to 
follow, whereas the intermediate courses might 
possess more or less independent value, in addition 
to their preparatory function for further study. 

1 During the school year ending June 30, 1913, the " net enrollment " 
of the high schools in New York City was 61,262. There were discharged 
during the same year 20,326 pupils who had not completed the course. 
These were distributed as follows: first year, 12,535; second year, 
4963 ; third year, 1929 ; fourth year, 899. 



THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL 67 

The course of study of the intermediate school 
might contain four groups of options, as follows : ^ — 

1. The Commercial Course for those who expect 
to take the commercial course in the high school or 
who intend to go to work in business houses : — 

(a) 12J hours to literature, composition, spelling, 
penmanship, mathematics, geography, history, and 
science. 

{h) 7I hours to physical training, music, general 
exercises, and recesses. 

(c) 5 hours to bookkeeping, business forms and 
procedure, business arithmetic, and related design. 

{d) 5 hours to typewriting and hand-work. 

{e) Total, 30 hours per week. 

2. The Literary Course for those who intend to go 
through the high school and to college : — 

{a) 12J hours to literature, composition, spelling, 
penmanship, mathematics, geography, history, and 
science. 

(5) 7 J hours to physical training, music, general 
exercises, and recesses. 

(c) 5 hours to a modern language. 

{d) 5 hours to drawing, designing, making, and re- 
pairing. 

^ See article by David Snedden, Educational Review , Vol. 44, p. 134. 



68 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

(e) Total, 30 hours per week. 

3. The Manual Arts Course for those who intend 
to enter the industrial or the general course in the 
high school or to enter upon a trade : — 

(a) 12^ hours to literature, composition, spelling, 
penmanship, mathematics, geography, history, and 
science. 

(b) 7J hours to physical training, music, general 
exercises, and recesses. 

(c) 5 hours to bookkeeping, business forms and 
procedure, business arithmetic, and related design. 

(d) 5 hours to typewriting and hand-work. 

(e) Total, 30 hours per week. 

4. The Household Arts Course for girls who wish 
to devote a large amount of time to the arts of home 
making. 

(a) 12J hours to literature, composition, spelling, 
penmanship, mathematics, geography, history, and 
science. 

(b) 7J hours to physical training, music, general 
exercises, and recesses. 

(c) 10 hours to household arts. 

(d) Total, 30 hours per week. 

I . The Fitchburg School. — Such a school is already 
in existence in Fitchburg, Massachusetts. It is 



THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL 69 

attended by about one-third of the seventh and 
eighth grade pupils in the city. Some of the forms 
of handwork for boys undertaken in the Fitchburg 
school under course (3) are as follows : ^ — 

(a) In the line of repairs : repacking faucets in the 
building, scraping and refinishing desks, setting 
glass, care of lawn-mowers, painting window screens^ 
relaying decayed basement floors, repairing broken 
furniture, reseating chairs, rearranging rubber stair 
pads. • 

(b) In the line of woodwork : constructing work- 
benches, assisting in making kitchen tables, making 
teachers' desks for the entire building, building par- 
titions and lockers. 

{c) In the painting line: bronzing steam pipes, 
oiling floors, finishing and seating chairs bought in 
unfinished wood, painting kitchen, dining-room, 
wood-working room, and locker rooms, finishing 
work-benches and teachers' desks, painting and 
papering library. 

{d) Work was begun in grading and the laying of 
concrete and granolithic walks. 

In all the above lines of work the pupils are 
directed not only by the teachers, but by skilled 

1 Vocational Education, Vol, 2, p. 63, 



70 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

journeymen, also, who work with them. It is in- 
sisted that the work be performed with dispatch 
and in a workmanHke manner. That is, an effort 
is made to provide the actual conditions and atmos- 
phere of industry. 

The girls who take the domestic arts course 
design and make their own needlebooks, work bags, 
gymnasium suits, caps and aprons for cooking, be- 
sides hemming towels for the kitchen and making 
covers for the typewriters. 

It is proposed that retarded children between the 
ages of twelve and fourteen years of age, who have 
not yet reached the sixth grade, shall attend the 
intermediate school, taking the practical courses 
with the rest and pursuing the cultural studies in 
special classes. It* is well known that the truant is 
frequently a retarded pupil. He loses interest in 
school because his classmates are younger than he 
and the studies of the grade do not appeal to him. 
A thirteen-year-old boy in a 3A class with nine- 
year-old pupils can hardly be blamed for consider- 
ing both the studies and the companions unworthy 
of serious attention. Besides, he is liable to become 
the butt of jests from unsympathetic teachers. 
The whole school environment is odious to him, and 



THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL 71 

SO he " goes on the hook." Then he becomes a 
conscious lawbreaker; consorts with evil com- 
panions who are older and sometimes skilled in 
crime ; and frequently lands in the Children's Court 
charged with larceny or other juvenile delinquency. 
Unquestionably these older children should be 
segregated and given work to do that is worth 
while from their own point of view. The inter- 
mediate school with an optional program is the very 
place for a misfit boy. Handwork is always attrac- 
tive to children who hate books ; and the muscular 
exercise required for handwork absorbs energy that 
is now expended in vagrancy. 

2. The Cleveland School. — Fitchburg is not the 
only place that possesses an intermediate school. 
The Elementary Industrial School at Cleveland is 
another example. The requirements for admission 
to this school are that pupils " shall be at least two 
years behind grade, that they should either have 
finished the sixth grade or have failed to finish it 
and would therefore become ^ repeaters.' '' The 
academic instruction includes English, arithmetic, 
geography, history, and hygiene, all taught in such 
a way that through narrowing the field and inten- 
sifying instruction the pupils may " secure insight 



72 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

into and control of a few important and fundamental 
things." On the practical side the boys have shop- 
work in wood and sheet metal, mechanical drawing, 
freehand drawing, and design. The girls have house- 
hold arts, including cooking, machine and hand sew- 
ing, garment making, freehand and mechanical 
drawing, and design applied to various crafts. 
About half the day is spent in book work, the 
other half in shopwork. The school aims " to offer 
substantial book training with selected subject 
matter based upon the immediate needs of retarded 
pupils, coupled with a training in the practical arts 
that underlie industry. It seeks primarily to develop 
intelligence, yet at the same time endeavors to give 
skill in work.'' ^ 

3. The Albany ' and Rochester Schools. — • The 
Cleveland school exists for retarded pupils only. 
But similar courses for normal pupils have been 
devised at the Intermediate Industrial School of 
Albany, New York, and at the Rochester Shop 
Schools. In the former the plan is to take *' two 
years of the elementary period and two years 
beyond, children entering at about thirteen or four- 
teen." In the latter, the plan is to receive " boys 

1 Superintendenfs Report, 1909, p. 61. 



THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL 73 

from fourteen years of age who were in the sixth, 
seventh, and eighth grades, and who were mani- 
festly of a mechanical turn of mind. . . . The 
weekly program is evenly divided between shop 

and academic work, but almost all 

the academic work is based on industrial con- 
ditions or needs." The curriculum of the school 
covers elementary and advanced woodworking and 
elementary and advanced machine and electrical 
work.^ 

4. Other Similar Schools already in existence may 
be enumerated as follows : — 

(a) The Hebrew Technical Institute, New York. 

{h) The Manhattan Trade School for Girls, New 
York. 

(c) The Vocational School for Boys, New York. 

{d) Industrial School, New Bedford, Massa- 
chusetts. 

The National Society for the Promotion of In- 
dustrial Education has published a descriptive list 
of 159 trade and industrial schools in the United 
States.^ Many of these are properly intermediate 



^ Proceedings, N. E. A., 1910, p. 730. 

2 Bulletin No. 11, by Edward H. Reisner, National Society for the 
Promotion of Industrial Education, 140 West 42d St., New York. 



74 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

schools, though they are not known as such. A 
few years ago the State of New York established a 
Bureau of Vocational Education under the direction 
of the Commissioner of Education. Mr. Arthur D. 
Dean was placed in charge of the Bureau. At the 
dedication of the new Education Building at Albany, 
on October 15, 191 2, the late Hon. Whitelaw Raid, 
Ambassador to Great Britain and Chancellor of the 
University of the State of New York, presented the 
following summary of the progress of vocational 
teaching in the State of New York : — 

"All public schools, whether in cities, villages, or rural 
districts, teach drawing. Three-fourths of the city schools 
offer courses in manual training, cooking, and sewing. One- 
half of the village schools give courses in sewing, one-third 
manual training and .cooking. There are forty public in- 
dustrial and trade schools, with a day enrollment of 4000 
and an evening enrollment of 3000 pupils. Twenty-eight vil- 
lage high schools have vocational courses in agriculture, and 
twenty others give agricultural teaching of a less definite 
character. There are 10,000 pupils in evening departments 
of existing day schools, learning the trade appplications of 
drawing, science, and mathematics." 

II. Industries in the High School. — The U. S. 

Commissioner of Education ^ reports 425 public high 

^Report, 1911, Vol. 2, p. 1229. 



THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL 75 

schools, representing nearly all the States, in which 
manual or technical training is given to 27,178 
boys, 15,948 girls, — a total of 43,126 students. 
He reports also 287 manual, industrial, and tech- 
nical schools, in which 17,907 pupils receive instruc- 
tion in elementary academic studies, 61,296 pupils 
receive instruction in ordinary high school studies, 
and 108,209 pupils receive manual and industrial 
training. The typical manual training high school 
is a school of secondary grade in which a greater or 
less amount of handwork is included in the curric- 
ulum and in which the greater part of the academic 
instruction is similar to that found in other high 
schools. Neither the manual nor the academic in- 
struction is especially planned to be of direct voca- 
tional service. The technical high school is a school 
of secondary grade having the distinct purpose of 
preparing its pupils for industrial leadership. In 
such schools the instruction deals not only with the 
important manual operations, but also with those 
principles of science and mathematics, and their 
direct applications to industrial work, which will 
prepare the student for mastering the fundamental 
processes and problems of the industries. In second- 
ary, as well as in elementary, education, manual 



76 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

training as hitherto taught has not proved its 
value by its work. The N. E. A. Committee/ after 
thorough investigation, says that, with a few notable 
exceptions, practically all of the 425 public indus- 
trial and technical high schools should be classified 
as manual training high schools. They differ in no 
important educational particular from regular aca- 
demic high schools. Very few of their graduates are 
directed toward industrial life and fitted for any 
specific science. " The committee has obtained 
from a great variety of sources what appears to it 
almost overwhelming evidence of the . . . impera- 
tive need of both secondary technical schools and 
trade and preparatory trade schools, if all of the 
youth of the land are to be served with anything 
approaching equal educational opportunities." 
These technical high schools should prepare pupils 
definitely for industrial efficiency. The opinion 
that the scope and purpose of the manual training 
high school should be changed, is not confined to 
men directly interested in the technical side of 
education, as is evident from the following excerpt 
of a letter from Dr. Thomas M. Balliet, of New York 
University : — 

* Th^ Place of Industries in Public Education, N. E. A., 1910, p. 81. 



THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL 77 

"As for a manual- training high school, which differs only 
from the literary commercial high schools in that it has some- 
what more shopwork and perhaps more mechanical drawing 
and a literary course less extensive than the first, and perhaps 
a less specialized literary course than the second, I confess I 
see no use for it in the future. It has no distinctive aim and 
character. In such a school there is so great a lack of correla- 
tion between the academic studies and the shopwork that 
boys and girls recite together in their academic work and 
separately only in their strictly technical work. Such a school 
is simply a literary high school with a somewhat narrow aca- 
demic course and with a little more shopwork. The problem 
before us is to transform all such manual-training high schools 
into technical high schools. The manual training of a techni- 
cal high school is likely to be fully as good, and I should say, 
better, than the manual training in a so-called manual-train- 
ing high school of the type here described. Manual training 
does not lose its general educational value, but distinctly 
gains by being given a more definite industrial bent than it 
has had in the past." ^ 

In New York City thirty-seven per cent of the 
population are engaged in industrial and mechanical 
work; thirty-seven per cent in business; nineteen 
per cent in domestic service; and ^ve per cent in 
the learned professions. We have many schools to 
prepare for the professions, but we have, aside from 
engineering schools of college grade, only a few 

* The Place of Industries in Public Education, N. E. A., 1910, p. 92. 



78 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

schools giving thorough vocational training for the 
seventy-four per cent engaged in commerce and in- 
dustry. The result is that our skilled artisans are 
nearly all foreign-born and foreign-trained. Our 
boys and girls drift into offices and stores as mes- 
sengers and low-grade helpers. Many of them fail 
to find congenial and remunerative employment, 
and soon join the ranks of criminals. Statistics 
show that most of the crime in New York is com- 
mitted by young men. The Massachusetts Com- 
mission discovered that 25,000 children from four- 
teen to sixteen years of age, in that state alone, are 
out of school and unemployed. Common observa- 
tion is enough to verify the inference that similar 
conditions exist in other states. The corner loafer 
and the criminal gangster are evidences of the evil 
of youthful idleness. If all young people were 
trained for some specific vocation, as is the case, 
for example, in Wurttemberg, where education is 
compulsory up to the age of eighteen, these idlers 
that now infest our streets and prey upon honest 
people would be employed at some useful occupa- 
tion. From the point of view of the individual and 
of society, vocational education, extension of the 
compulsory period, and the more thorough enforce- 



THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL 79 

ment of compulsory laws are the pressing need of 
the hour. 

I. Adjustment of the High School to the Needs of 
the Community. — What can be done in the direc- 
tion of making the high school useful to the com- 
munity which supports it may be shown by citing a 
concrete example. Colebrook Academy ^ is located 
in the Connecticut Valley in the northern part of 
New Hampshire. The population of the town is 
1200, and the surrounding country is a fine agricul- 
tural district. This Academy was once a private 
school. While retaining its original name, it is 
really a public high school. In an effort to relate 
the school program as closely as possible to the life 
and industries of the community, four distinct lines 
of work are offered; namely: — 

(a) The ordinary literary course leading to the 
college. 

{h) A course in agriculture. 

{c) A course in home making. 

{d) A commercial course. 

The faculty consists of a superintendent, who 
supervises the district and does no teaching; the 

^ The Readjustment of a Rural High School to the Needs of the Commu- 
nity, by H. A. Brown, Bulletin No. 20, 191 2, U. S. Bureau of Education. 



8o HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

principal and two teachers, who are college gradu- 
ates, and teach the academic subjects ; a teacher of 
agriculture, who is a graduate of the Massachusetts 
Agricultural College; a domestic arts teacher, who 
is a graduate of the home economics department of 
Simmons College; and a teacher of commercial 
subjects, who is a graduate of the commercial 
course of the Salem State Normal School. 

The equipment includes the usual building and 
supplies of a literary high school, besides a green- 
house, dairy laboratory, kitchen, carpenter shop, 
blacksmith shop, and school garden. 

The course of study in detail follows : — 

Course of Study of a Rural High School, Colebrook, N.H. 



Year 



Subjects 



Periods 
PER Week 



Ext. in 
Years 



II 



III 



IV 



Agricultural Course 



English 

Advanced Arithmetic 

Agronomy 

Farm mechanics — Farm carpentry . , 

English 

Practical mathematics 

Animal husbandry and dairying . . . 
Farm mechanics — Farm blacksmithing 

English 

Physics 

Horticulture 

Road building 

Forestry 

English 

American constitutional history . . . 



THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL 



8i 



Course of Study of a Rural High School, Colebrook, N.H. 

(Continued) 



Subjects 



Chemistry 

Rural economy and farm management 
Physiography : Geology and mineralogy . 

Domestic Arts Course 

English 

Advanced arithmetic 

Elementary sewing 

Elementary cooking 

Ancient history 

English 

Dressmaking, millinery, and designing . . 

Biology 

French 

English 

Household design and decoration . . . 
Household mechanical appliances . . . 
Household sanitation and hygiene . . . 

Physics 

French 

English 

American constitutional history .... 

Chemistry 

Advanced cooking and dietaries .... 
Advanced physiology and hygiene and the 

elements of nursing 

Household economics 

French 

Commercial Course 

English 

Commercial arithmetic 

Stenography 

Typewriting 

Ancient history 

English 

Stenography 

Typewriting 

Commercial geography 

History of commerce 

French 



Periods 
PER Week 



s 

5 

lO 
lO 

5 
5 

lO 

5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
S 
5 
4 
4 
4 
4 

4 
4 

4 



Ext. in 
Years 



82 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

Course of Study of a Rural High School, Colebrook, N.H. 
(Continued) 



Year 



III 



IV 



II 



III 



IV 



Subjects 



English 

Bookkeeping and office practice 

Physics 

French 

English 

American constitutional history 

Commercial law 

Political economy 

Bookkeeping and office practice 
French 

Classical Course 

English 

Ancient history ...... 

First year mathematics . . . 

Latin 

English . . 

Second year mathematics . . 

French 

Latin 

English 

French 

Latin . . . . , 

Physics and chemistry . . . 

English . 

American constitutional history 

French 

Latin 

Review algebra 

Review geometry 



Periods 


Ext. in 


PER Week 


Years 


5 


I 


5 


I 


5 


I 


5 


I 


4 


I 


4 
4 
4 


I 

1 


4 


I 


4 


I 


5 




5 




5 




5 




5 




5 




5 




5 




5 




S 


I 


5 


I 


5 




4 




4 




4 




4 
4 
4 


'l 



CHAPTER V 
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 

I. The Shop vs. the Trade School. — Whether 
the trade school or the shop is the best place to 
learn a trade is an open question. We have the 
word of Dr. Kerschensteiner that " a shop or fac- 
tory cannot produce a good mechanic. Nearly all 
of them lack sufficient variety in scope or range and 
quahty of work to enable them to do so. Further- 
more, many of them are not prepared to impart to 
their apprentices what they know themselves." ^ A 
similar opinion is expressed by Mr. Alexander, of the 
General Electric Company, West Lynn, Massachu- 
setts. Speaking of the apprenticeship system in con- 
nection with so-called " corporation schools," he says : 
*^ We should welcome the development of this phase 
of industrial education, but with a jealous eye 
should watch its progress, and courageously voice 
our protest, if it tends to gravitate toward narrow 

1 The Organization and Management of Trade Schools, by John M. 
Shrigley, National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, 
1908. 

83 



§4 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

selfishness instead of legitimate protection of the 
industries," or offers '^ merely a surface polish of 
trade training rather than a thorough treatment of 
the whole problem/' ^ That is, the corporation is 
likely to train its employees to become expert in 
some one process of a trade or in the handling of a 
single piece of machinery; but it cannot be ex- 
pected to care very much about the personal develop- 
ment of the worker from the humanitarian or social 
point of view, or to be interested in teaching him the 
whole trade merely for his own good. It is in the 
educational business simply because it pays to have 
men and women properly trained to carry on the 
business. 

On the other hand, it is contended by some that 
the place to learn a trade is in the trade itself ; be- 
cause the school cannot provide the conditions of 
industry. Thus, Mr. F. W. Thomas, Supervisor of 
Apprentices of the Santa Fe Railway System, says : 
" There is nothing that will ever take the place of 
an apprenticeship. There is no trade school or 
training school in the country that will turn out 
young men or boys who are capable of entering a 

* Bulletin No. ij, Part II, National Society for the Promotion 
of Industrial Education, 191 1, p. 54. 



CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 85 

shop and competing with the average mechanic; 
while they may be taught considerable * book- 
learning/ their practical instruction must of neces- 
sity be limited. There is nothing that will take 
the place of practical experience. '^ ^ That there is 
truth in this statement is obvious when you apply 
it to the teaching profession. The normal school 
and the training school are very useful in their 
way, but they cannot produce the finished teacher. 
They have their model and observation schools, 
where the candidate tries his hand at teaching. 
But conditions under which he works are artificial 
and not at all like those of a real school. The very 
best graduates of a training school are not able in 
the beginning to compete on equal terms with the 
experienced members of their profession. They 
begin with the lowest salary and require much 
assistance from the principal. Not until they have 
had five or six years of experience can they hope to 
become artists. 

II. The Continuation School. — Since then the 
corporation or shop is not equipped for teaching 
and has more interest in the welfare of the business 

^Bulletin No. 13, Part II, National Society for the Promotion of 
Industrial Education, 191 1, p. 67. 



86 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

than the welfare of the apprentice; and since the 
trade school is relatively inefficient on account of 
its artificial environment, a third mode of training 
apprentices has been devised which possesses the 
advantages of both the preceding plans and avoids 
all their disadvantages. This is the so-called con- 
tinuation school, or part-time system, by which the 
learner is employed in the trade at regular wages, 
but is permitted or required to attend a trade school 
for a certain stipulated number of hours per week 
in the daytime. In this way the pupil has real shop 
experience and at the same time gets the benefit of 
the broader theoretical training which aims to 
make him an efficient worker and a good citizen. 
The plan has the additional merit of making the 
apprentice self-supporting while he is learning his 
trade. If he devotes all his time to school, he is an 
economic burden to his family. If he devotes all 
his time to the trade, his broader intellectual and 
civic training is liable to be neglected. Here we 
have, therefore, the ideal arrangement for the most 
efficient and most economical production of skilled 
artisans. 

A continuation school is a school for persons en- 
gaged in useful employment which gives instruction 



CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 87 

supplementary to such employment. In this coun- 
try we find three types of this institution : — 

1. Schools for profit, examples of which are cor- 
respondence schools, commercial schools, and some 
trade schools. 

2. Endowed schools, examples of which are 
Cooper Union, the Ohio Mechanics' Institute, Pratt 
Institute, the Ranken School of Mechanical Trades 
in St. Louis, and the Williamson School in Penn- 
sylvania. 

3. Public schools. 

III. The Part-time System in Cincinnati. — 
I. The Engineering College} — In 1906 Professor 
Herman Schneider, Dean of the College of Engineer- 
ing, University of Cincinnati, introduced his well- 
known plan of cooperative education. The University 
belongs to the city and is entirely supported by taxa- 
tion . The course of study is so devised that the student 
works alternate weeks in the college and at the manu- 
facturing shops of the city. The classes are divided 
into two sections, so that when one section is at the 
shop, the other is at the university. The length 
of the course is six years. During the summer 

* Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 
33, P- 50. 



88 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

the student works at the shop all the time, with the 
exception of a few weeks' vacation. He is paid for 
his shop work on a scale of wages which begins at 
ten cents an hour and increases at the rate of one cent 
an hour every six months, so that the total earnings 
of the course amount to about $1800. The first 
year there were sixty applicants. Of these forty-five 
went to the shops, of whom twenty-eight survived. 
The second year there were eight hundred applicants, 
sixty of whom were sent to the shops. Of the sixty, 
forty-four were recommended by their employers 
and started university work. The third year the 
applications numbered two thousand. 

2. Part-time in High Schools. — The secondary 
schools of Cincinnati are also operating the part- 
time system. In 1907 the Board of Education began 
the erection of two large high schools costing nearly 
a miUion dollars each. The schools offer the usual 
academic studies and, in addition, vocational train- 
ing for boys and girls. The first two years of voca- 
tional study are designed to discover aptitudes and 
to give general manual dexterity. Then the pupil 
is placed into a trade shop, and is required to con- 
tinue his schooling on the alternate week plan for the 
next two years. If the economic necessity of the 



CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 89 

pupil requires it, his schooling may be Hrciited to 
half a day per week. In the first school year the 
boy gives three or four hours a day to wood work. 
In the second year he gives the same time to mental 
work. At the beginning of the third year he selects 
his vocation and enters a shop on the wages of a third- 
year apprentice. The school is open at night for 
adult workers. In 191 1 the evening classes enrolled 
2400 pupils. 

3. The Continuation School for Apprentices, — 
The school authorities invited the apprentices in the 
shops to continue their education in the evening 
classes of the high schools. But it was soon dis- 
covered that the training of the apprentice is dis- 
tinctly a daytime proposition. A boy who has con- 
centrated his attention upon a machine or process 
for ten hours during the day has little energy left 
for serious work at night. Hence his education 
must be given, not in addition to his work, but in 
lieu of a part of his work. The Board of Educa- 
tion therefore opened a Continuation School for 
apprentices in 1909. It runs forty-eight weeks a 
year, eight hours a day, four and a half days a week. 
The teachers spend two half days a week studying 
the conditions under which their pupils work, con- 



90 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

suiting foremen about the needs of the boys, and 
getting ideas as to the matter and method of teaching. 
There are 250 students, divided into nine groups 
according to proficiency. They attend one half day 
(four hours) a week. At first they were docked for 
this absence from the shop; but several years ago 
the manufacturers' organization, the labor organiza- 
tion, and the school authorities decided to shorten 
the hours of labor without decreasing pay. Con- 
sequently the boy attends school for half a day and 
still receives a full week's pay. The apprentices 
at present in the continuation school are from the 
machine trade, pattern making, drafting, and print- 
ing. The wages of the boys for the half day during 
which they are absent from the shop to attend school 
amounts to $6000 a year. The loss in production 
suffered by the firms is over $25,000 a year. The 
Board of Education spends $5000 a year to maintain 
the school. The burden placed on the teachers 
thus amounts to $36,000 a year. They must pro- 
duce an attitude of mind and an increase of skill and 
intelligence on the part of the boys which will 
produce $31,000 worth of work in the shorter week 
beyond what they would produce in a full week 
without going to school. 



CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 91 

"The manner in which the attitude of the apprentice has 
been influenced and his intelligence increased, so that there 
has been no loss charged up to the shorter week, is most in- 
teresting and is the subject of comment in labor circles as well 
as educational and commercial organizations. 

" The first thing an apprentice is taught is the difference be- 
tween knowledge and skill. The average school lad has been 
led along the paths of knowledge until he has begun to be- 
lieve that knowledge is money. He must be taught that few, 
if any, persons are able to derive an income from the sale of 
their knowledge and that knowledge is only saleable when it 
has been worked into skill. Knowledge is knowing how to 
do a thing. Skill is ability to do it with such a quality and in 
such a quantity that it is marketable. The purpose of manu- 
facture is not to make things, but to make things that will 
sell and to make them for considerably less than they will 
sell for. The apprentice is usually offended at this commer- 
cialism, and it takes him some time to enter into the spirit 
of modern production. He wishes to learn how to do a mul- 
titude of things, but he scorns the drudgery of repeating any 
one thing until he has mastered it. The most vital part of 
apprenticeship is lost to the boy if he finishes his time with 
barrels of knowledge but without the skill to produce a day's 
work." 1 

As a result of the success of the school, the Ohio 
Legislature passed a law in 1910 authorizing boards 
of education to establish continuation schools, and 

^ J. Howard Renshaw, Principal of the Continuation School, Cin- 
cinnati, Bulletin No. is, National Society for the Promotion of Industrial 
Education, 191 1, p. 82. 



92 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

requiring the attendance of all children employed 
under sixteen years of age, for not more than eight 
hours a week. 

IV. The Laws of Massachusetts and Connecti- 
cut. — The Legislatures of Massachusetts and Con- 
necticut have passed laws authorizing the establish- 
ment and maintenance of three types of vocation 
schools : — 

(i) All-day schools for children over fourteen 
years of age who are not engaged in any wage- 
earning occupation. 

(2) Part-time classes for children between the 
ages of fourteen and eighteen who are employed in 
some industry during the remainder of the day or 
week. 

(3) Evening courses for adults employed in trades. 
I. The Newton Independent Industrial School. — 

Of the first type the Independent Industrial School 
of Newton, Massachusetts,^ is an illustration. It re- 
ceives boys from the elementary school who are 14 
years of age. In June, 1 91 1 , the Industrial School had 
eighty-three pupils on register. Of these nine had 
come from the fifth grade, twenty-one from the sixth 
grade, twenty-five from the seventh grade, and 

1 Vocational Education, Vol. i, p. 244. 



CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 93 

twenty-two from the eighth grade. It appears from 
the previous education of these boys that many of 
them were " retarded ^' in the regular school. They 
evidently had no taste for the kind of instruction 
that is given by the traditional public school. For 
this reason the Massachusetts law requires that all- 
day vocational schools shall be " separate,'' shall be 
free from the domination of cultural ideals, and gov- 
erned definitely by the vocational interests of the 
pupils. The Newton School emphasizes the idea 
of separateness by calling itself an Independent 
Industrial School. It is independent of the regular 
elementary school and all its ways and works. 
But in the opinion of those best qualified to judge, 
this feature of the Massachusetts law is an error. 
There is no valid reason why a child who dislikes 
books should be compelled to defer his vocational 
training until he is fourteen. Nor is there any good 
reason why the public school should refuse to provide 
vocational training for those of its pupils who desire 
it and at the same time keep open the way to the 
high school for those who are headed that way. 
Reform schools, organized on a vocational plan, often 
receive boys only ten years of age, and succeed 
where the public school has failed. The Newton 



94 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

School is open six hours a day and eleven months in 
the year. The course covers three years, and the 
pupiPs time is divided equally between book work 
and shop work. The course of study includes the 
following : — 

{a) Mechanical drawing; (h) Mathematics; 
{c) English; {d) Commercial geography; (e) Sci- 
ence ; (/) History ; (g) Government ; Qi) Shop work. 

The school is committed to the policy of turning 
out of its shop a marketable product. Much of the 
school's equipment was manufactured by the pupils. 
A variety of articles, such as cabinets, tables, blanks, 
catalogues, reports, etc., for use in other schools, 
have been turned out of the shops of the school. An 
accurate account of the cash value of the product is 
kept and is credited to the school. 

It is claimed by the school authorities that the 
complete four years' course (three in the school and 
one in the trade) will give the boy the essentials 
of the seventh and eighth grade work and of the 
first two years of the high school course, and, in 
addition, a trade experience fully equivalent to two 
years of apprenticeship training. 

2. The Fitchburg High School. — The part-time 
plan of the Fitchburg (Mass.) High School illustrates 



CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 95 

the second type of schools authorized by the Massa- 
chusetts law. The pupils give half the time to work 
for wages in the industrial shops of the city, and half 
to school work. The classroom instruction articu- 
lates with the grammar school below and the college 
or technical school above. The regular high school 
building is used for this part of the course. The 
first year the boy devotes his entire time to school. 
The next three years equal groups of boys alternate 
between shop and school, so that half the pupils are 
always at work in the shop and half in school. 
Boys are paid for work done in the shops at the rate 
of ten cents an hour for the first year, eleven cents for 
the second year, and twelve and a half cents for the 
third year. This makes a total income of $552.75 
for three years. 

3. The Springfield Evening School for Trades illus- 
trates the third type of schools contemplated by the 
Massachusetts law. It is the outcome of the Me- 
chanic Arts High School, established in 1898, under 
the superintendency of Thomas M. Balliet, which 
was the first trade school in the United States sup- 
ported at pubHc expense.^ The general aim of the 

^ Chas. F. Warner : The Annals of the American Academy of Political 
and Social Science, Vol. 33, p. 56. 



g6 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

school is to give to men employed in the trades a 
chance to broaden their technical training and thus 
make themselves more efficient artisans. It differs 
from foreign continuation schools in placing the 
emphasis upon training in the school shops. In 
Germany and England the evening continuation 
schools aim to extend the work of the elementary 
schools in language, mathematics, drawing, and 
science, with special reference to the application of 
the subjects to particular industries. Training in 
the use of tools and machines is left to the shops 
and factories in which the student is employed during 
the day. In America the main object of the evening 
trade school at the present stage of its development 
is to supplement the imperfect and highly special- 
ized training of thfe shop by giving machine hands, 
helpers, and apprentices a wider experience in shop 
practice than is possible in the industrial shop. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL 
TEACHERS ^ 

I. The Prussian Plan. — We have now been 
agitating the question of vocational education for 
a number of years and have here and there organized 
schools of the vocational type ; but we have scarcely 
begun to think of the most important desideratum 
in connection with this new movement; namely, 
the training of vocational teachers. Educational 
reform which overlooks the teacher is but a dream. 
Before we can successfully introduce new subjects 
into the curriculum we must have qualified persons 
to teach them. What is meant by these statements 
will become clear after a brief consideration of the 
training of teachers for vocational schools in Ger- 
many. In 1885 the salaries of such teachers in 
Prussia were smaller than those of the State schools 
and were paid by the local authorities. The teachers 
occupied a lower social rank than regular teachers, 

^ The facts concerning Germany are drawn chiefly from an article in 
the Report oj the U. S. Commissioner of Education for igiijSon "Training 
of Vocational Teachers in Germany," by Edwin G. Cooley. j 

H 97 



98 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

and were not entitled to a pension. Now the voca- 
tional teacher is paid by the State, has a life tenure 
(in cities), has a pension for himself and his widow 
and orphans, and, if he be a university graduate, 
has a free dwelling or a cash equivalent, and enjoys 
an income equal to the best academic salaries. 
This prosperity has come to him as the result of being 
properly trained for his work. 

I. Building Trades and Mechanical Engineering, 
— In the Prussian schools for the building trades and 
schools of mechanical engineering no special provi- 
sion has been made for the training of teachers. 
It is the custom to employ in such schools graduates 
of higher technical institutes who have been suc- 
cessful in the industries and have an interest in teach- 
ing. Very few ordinary academic teachers are found 
in these schools, even for teaching academic subjects. 
In an effort to keep in close touch with the industries, 
practical men are selected as teachers, and these 
are encouraged to devote a part of their time to the 
industries. In order to improve such teachers in 
the service, the State grants them leave to visit 
other cities, leave with pay for further study, and 
permission to engage in private occupations in the 
Hne of their specialties. 



THE TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS 99 

2. Industrial Arts. — During the last few years 
courses of study have been arranged for the training 
of teachers in the industrial arts. For instance, 
Architect Riemerschmidt, of Munich, gives a course 
in furniture design and interior architecture. The 
Trade School of Magdeburg has a course in flat orna- 
mentation. Professor Behrens, of Diisseldorf, has 
a course in lettering. Mural painting and decora- 
tion are taught by Professor Mahrbutter at Char- 
lottenburg. Teachers are assisted by grants from 
the State or municipality to journey to these several 
places for the purpose of study. Teachers of the 
textile branches enjoy similar advantages. 

3. Continuation Schools. — At first these schools 
were taught by elementary school teachers, who 
seldom possessed the necessary skill. Consequently 
these teachers at present all receive special training 
in art, commercial subjects, language, and arith- 
metic. In 1909 the sum of $47,600 was expended 
in training continuation teachers. The number 
of such instructors is about 12,000, of whom some 
550 are employed in the daytime, and the remainder 
at night. Those who have investigated the subject 
tell us that much remains to be done in the proper 
training of this class of teachers. 



lOO HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

4. Vocational Teachers for Girls' Schools. — These 
schools are the most fortunate of all so far as ade- 
quate training of teachers is concerned. There are 
three State schools for this class of teachers, one at 
Posen, one at Rheydt, one at Potsdam. For ad- 
mission a pupil must be a graduate of higher girls' 
school or girls' middle school. There are three 
groups of teachers of vocational work for women in 
Prussia : (a) Teachers of women's handiwork; (b) 
teachers of household arts; (c) vocational teachers for 
the industries. Handiwork consists of knitting, 
crocheting, sewing, and embroidery. Household arts 
include cooking and ordinary housework. Teachers 
for the industries are prepared to teach older girls 
in the special continuation schools the finer handi- 
work required in tailoring, dressmaking, and milli- 
nery. These must not only take the course provided 
in the training school, but must supplement this work 
by half a year of service in the actual industry and a 
probationary year in teaching. Only then does the 
candidate receive a license to teach. 

Following are examples of several of the numer- 
ous courses offered in the three State institutions 
named : — 



THE TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS loi 



Handiwork 



Subjects 



Weekly 

First 
Semester 



Hours 

Second 
Semester 



Entire 

Number of 

Hours 



Handiwork 

Machine sewing, etc. . . . 
Study of materials .... 

Drawing 

Pedagogy 

Practice teaching and method 

Hygiene 

German and civics .... 

Arithmetic . i 

Singing and gymnastics . . 
Total 



420 

280 
40 

120 
60 

140 
40 
80 
20 

160 



34 



34 



1360 



Household Arts 



Subjects 



Cooking 

Handiwork 

Housework, including washing and 
ironing 

Natural science, including knowledge 
of food 

Domestic economy, including house- 
hold accounts 

Pedagogy 

Practice teaching and method . . . 

Hygiene 

German and civics 

Arithmetic 

Drawing 

Singing and gymnastics 

Total . . . . . '. '. '. '. T 



Weekly 

First 
Semester 


Hours 

Second 

Semester 


Entire 
Number 
of Hours 


ID 

3 


10 


400 
180 


6 


3 


60 


3 


3 


120 


2 


I 

I 


20 
60 


— 


7 


140 


I 
2 


I 
2 


40 
80 


I 


— 


20 


2 


2 


80 


4 


4 


160 


34 


34 


1360 



102 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

II. The Munich Plan. — In Munich trade 
teachers are trained in a different way. Every 
year, as the need arises, the Director of Education 
issues a notice that first-class men engaged in trade 
are wanted for the different branches of wood and 
metal work. As soon as the applications are re- 
ceived, the credentials are inspected and a list is 
made of candidates who are deemed suitable. 
These are then examined. The test includes the 
execution of a piece of practical work, the drawing 
of plans of that work, an estimate of the expense 
entailed, and a written description of the steps 
involved. If the candidate passes, he is required 
to practice for six months, without pay, in the work- 
shops of instruction provided for the purpose. In 
the second half year* of practice he receives seventy- 
five cents a day. In the meantime he also attends 
a course of lectures on the theory of education, on 
technology, on tool and machine construction. 
At the end of the year he is examined again on the 
same subjects he had in the first test, plus the lec- 
tures heard during the year. Besides, he is required 
to prove his teaching ability before a class of pupils. 
If he passes this ordeal, he becomes a trade teacher 
at $535 a year. 



THE TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS 103 

III. The Wurttemberg Plan. — The vocational 
schools of this Kingdom are probably the most effi- 
cient in the world. They fall into four general groups : 
(i) the machine trades; (2) the building trades; 
(3) the industrial arts; (4) the commercial group. 
In the smaller places a teacher must be skilled in the 
leading industry of the place, and must know some- 
thing of other branches of trade. Only in the largest 
schools is it possible to employ teachers who can 
qualify in only one of the four groups of industries. 

Teachers of the building trades are at present sent 
to Karlsruhe in Baden to be trained. This school 
has the reputation of being the best of its kind in 
Germany. Here the student takes a course of three 
and a half years. The appKcants are selected from 
the experienced and efficient elementary and second- 
ary teachers, who already possess thorough peda- 
gogical training. They have been passed through 
at least six years of a secondary school and so are 
well grounded in cultural studies. Wurttemberg 
grants them an allowance of $240 per year while 
they are at Karlsruhe. After completing the course 
they must spend from six months to a year in actual 
shop practice in the industries. 

Teachers of the commercial continuation schools 



I04 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

of Wurttemberg are sent for special courses to excel- 
lent training schools maintained in Leipzig, Mann- 
heim, Cologne, and Berlin. Candidates for this 
training are likewise selected from the elementary 
and secondary schools. 

Similar provision is made for training teachers of 
industrial arts. These are usually sent to schools in 
Stuttgart or Munich. 

IV. The Baden Plan. — The Grand Duchy of 
Baden was one of the earliest European States to 
inaugurate a system of vocational education, and it 
has to-day the best trained vocational teachers in 
the world. Its famous school at Karlsruhe for the 
training of vocational teachers was founded in 1878. 
It has courses for commercial teachers, industrial 
teachers, and the building trades. The thorough- 
ness of the instruction may be inferred from the few 
following details of the requirements : — 

To be admitted to the commercial department 
the student must be (i) a citizen of Baden ; (2) must 
have passed at least through the seventh year of a 
secondary school or possess a license as elementary 
school teacher ; (3) must have had a year of actual 
mercantile experience, if a teacher, or two years 
of such experience, if he has merely completed the 



THE TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS 105 

seventh secondary school year. The instruction 
covers these twelve subjects : (i) German compo- 
sition ; (2) German business correspondence ; (3) 
commercial mathematics ; (4) bookkeeping ; (5) for- 
eign languages; (6) stenography; (7) typewriting; 
(8) general economic geography; (9) political econ- 
omy and science of finance; (10) legal principles; 
(11) history of commerce; (12) lectures on teaching 
and theory of method. 

For admission to the industrial division of the 
Karlsruhe school the applicant must be (i) a citizen 
of Baden ; (2) must have passed through the seventh 
year of a secondary school or possess a license to 
teach in an elementary school; (3) must have 
attended the first three classes of the Building Trades 
School in Karlsruhe. The examination is divided 
into a preliminary and principal test. The prelimi- 
nary includes (i) teaching ability ; (2) German com- 
position ; (3) mathematics ; (4) descriptive geometry ; 
(5) physics; (6) chemistry; (7) elements of me- 
chanics ; (8) free-hand drawing and painting. 
The principal examination covers the following : — 
For the building trades : (i) Theory and design 
of building construction in stone, wood, and iron; 
(2) elements of the theory of mechanics. 



io6 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

For the machine trades : (i) Theory of mechanics ; 
(2) elements of electrotechnology ; (3) elements 
of the theory of building construction. 

For both architectural and machine trades: 
(i) Grammar of form and elements of the history 
and technique of industrial art; (2) science of ma- 
terials and mechanical technology; (3) applied 
drawing and painting; (4) modeling; (5) political 
economy and legal knowledge; (6) bookkeeping 
and calculation of cost; (7) teaching and theory of 
method. 

V. Summary. — Two points are conspicuous in 
this brief survey of teacher training in Germany: 
one is the thoroughness of preparation; the other 
is the extraordinary effort that is made to keep the 
school in close touch with industry. Evidently the 
government does not intend to waste ammunition 
by random firing. The pupil is to be fitted for a 
definite work ; and the teacher is required not only 
to know the technique of that work, but to know 
actual employment conditions of the industry. In 
Prussia the teacher of the building trade is a graduate 
of a technical school who has been successful in the 
building industry ; and he is encouraged to devote 
a part of his time to the industry while he is teaching. 



THE TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS 107 

In the same State the vocational teachers for girls' 
schools must not only be trained in special schools, 
but must serve half a year in the industry which they 
are to teach. In Munich the teachers are drawn 
entirely from the industries and are trained in 
pedagogy. They are successful artificers who take 
up teaching. In Wurttemberg experienced teachers 
of cultural subjects are trained in the technique of a 
vocation. But before they are permitted to teach 
in a vocational school they must spend from six 
months to a year in the industry. In Baden candi- 
dates for vocational schools are experienced teachers 
or persons who possess an academic culture repre- 
sented approximately by a graduate of an American 
high school. These candidates may not teach voca- 
tional subjects until they have completed the train- 
ing school course and served a year or two years in 
the industry. 

VI. Plans in the United States. — Contrast these 
methods with our own, as illustrated by the following 
example : — 

A farmer friend of mine recently employed a young 
graduate of the Cornell School of Agriculture as a 
farm hand. This boy was city-bred and had never 
worked on a farm ; but he has a degree in agriculture 



io8 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

and is looking for a position as superintendent of a 
farm ! He is entirely ignorant of the most rudimen- 
tary processes of farming. His knowledge is wholly 
theoretical. There is not a clodhopper who cannot 
give our Cornell graduate points on hoeing corn, 
milking cows, or planting potatoes. This is the sort 
of thing Germany takes pains to avoid by compelHng 
the teacher of carpentry to be an actual carpenter, 
the teacher of sewing an actual dressmaker, the 
teacher of bookkeeping an actual accountant. The 
school must keep in touch with actual conditions of 
trade and commerce. 

I. Teachers of Agriculture} — There are in the 
United States 52 institutions known as " agricultural 
and mechanical colleges." These all receive an 
appropriation from the national treasury for the 
purpose of maintaining courses in agriculture and 
mechanic arts. In addition to the above colleges 
there are sixteen institutions for colored students 
which furnish industrial education and receive na- 
tional aid. Of the State colleges of agriculture, 
thirty-five are offering courses intended to fit students 
to become teachers of agriculture, mechanic arts, 
or domestic science. Of the institutions for colored 

* See Report of V. S. Commissioner of Education, 1911, Vol. 2, p. 995. 



THE TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS 109 

students, Hampton Institute, Virginia, is the only 
one that prepares teachers of agriculture. As there 
is only a nominal government control of these schools 
and colleges, there is no uniformity in the courses of 
study and method of training teachers. That such 
training is often theoretical in character and not 
very thorough, as compared with German standards, 
may be inferred from one or two quotations from the 
U. S. Commissioner's Report : — 

" University of Idaho. — The department of agricultural 
education offers 5 courses : Development of agricultural 
education (2 hours) ; methods of teaching agriculture (2 
hours) ; rural sociology (3 hours) ; agricultural economics 
(3 hours) ; and methods in agricultural extension (3 hours). 
Agricultural students may elect 10 hours' work in general 
education." 

"Massachusetts Agricultural College. — The department of 
agricultural education established by provision of the State 
legislature in 1907, offers 5 courses : Meaning of education 
(3 hours) ; history and theory of vocational education (3 
hours) ; methods in agricultural education (3 hours) ; teach- 
ers' agriculture, a selection and review of the agricultural 
sciences adapted to school work (3 hours) ; seminar in edu- 
cation with special reference to agriculture (3 hours) . Seniors 
preparing for teaching have practical work with children in 
the college school gardens. Summer school courses are 
given in elementary agriculture, and in agricultural pedagogy. 
Correspondence courses are offered in agriculture, the prin- 



no HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

ciples of agricultural education, and practical exercises for 
grammar and high school teachers. The department devotes 
part of its time to aiding the introduction and teaching of 
nature study, school gardening, and agriculture in the public 
schools. It has furnished the services of an instructor to the 
North Adams State Normal School, who has devoted one half 
of the college year to supervising instruction in agriculture and 
nature study at the normal school and its practice schools." 

The following State Normal Schools also give 
instruction in teaching agriculture: Jacksonville, 
Ala., Los Angeles, Cal.; State Teachers College, 
Col.; State Normal School, Athens, Ga.; Illinois 
State Normal University; North Adams Normal 
School, Mass. ; State Normal School, Springfield, Mo. 

The difficulty of teaching agriculture in rural 
schools in such a manner as to create a love for 
farm life, add dignity to farm labor, and check the 
tide of emigration flowing from the farm to the city, 
is well expressed by the Wisconsin Report of the 
Commission upon the Extension of Industrial and 
Agricultural Training, submitted to the governor 
in 191 1. I quote as follows : — 

"At present the great majority of the teachers are women, 
brought up in the city, unacquainted with farm life, and much 
of their agricultural teaching has little weight. 

"The rural schools need a competent body of young men, 



THE TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS iii 

brought up on the farm, trained in agricultural schools, and 
experienced as teachers. With state aid sufficient to encour- 
age the payment of adequate salaries for efficient workers, 
these schools would reach 300,000 young people annually, 
and come in close personal contact with not less than 50,000 
farmers, or one fourth the entire number of the state. 

*^Fully one half of the pupils in these schools are girls, 
and their needs should be supplied by providing instruction 
in domestic science as effective as that asked for agriculture." 

2. The Cincinnati Plan. — Cincinnati has found 
it desirable to imitate the Munich plan. Here the 
chief difficulty has been, says Frank B. Dyer, 
formerly Superintendent of Schools, not in securing 
the interest of employers, or the approval of labor 
organizations, or the willingness of the boys, or the 
funds from the Board of Education, but in securing 
properly qualified teachers. The teacher of a part- 
time school must know the technique of trade to 
command the respect of employers and foremen. 
He must at the same time have skill in the technique 
of teaching sufficient to interest the pupil. And, 
lastly, he must meet the demands of the school 
board as to character and scholarship. This is a 
rare combination of skills. After corresponding 
with technical schools all over the country and find- 
ing no suitable person, Superintendent Dyer finally 



112 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

found a man who had worked nine years in the shops 
and had then taken up teaching as a profession. 
By and by his old love for the shop induced him to 
return to the industry, where he had recently been 
for several years teaching apprentices. He had 
worked over his whole pedagogical and scholastic 
outfit in terms of shop practice. This man was 
secured to take charge of the Continuation School. 
He was at first the only shop teacher employed; 
as fast as the need arose, he trained his assistants. 
The school now prepares its own teachers, and draws 
all its candidates from the industries. 

3. Other Agencies for Training Vocational 
Teachers, — Many universities and colleges offer 
training in the teaching of vocational subjects. 
Thus New York University prepares teachers of 
sewing, cooking, shop work, both in regular course 
and in the summer school. Columbia University, 
in its new School of Practical Arts, gives training to 
students who wish to teach cookery, wood or metal 
work, music, physical training, and nursing. 

The U. S. Commissioner of Education ^ gives an 
account of The Stout Training School for Teachers of 
Domestic Science and Art at Menomonie, Wisconsin. 

1 Report, 1911, Vol. i, p. 313. 



THE TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS 113 

This school was established in 1903. Its president 
is Mr. L. D. Harvey. No detail as to course of 
study or number of students is furnished; but so 
far as one is able to infer from the facts submitted, 
the institution resembles the Columbia School of 
Practical Arts, though it is much narrower in scope, 
being limited in purpose to the preparation of 
teachers of household arts. Pratt Institute in New 
York, State Normal College at Albany, State Normal 
School at Buffalo, Carnegie Institute at Pittsburg, 
Simmons College at Boston, and scores of other 
colleges, universities, and normal schools are to-day 
giving some sort of training to teachers for industrial 
schools and courses. 

4. A Study of American Conditions. — The Na- 
tional Society for the Promotion of Industrial 
Education published recently, through a special 
committee, a preliminary survey of the problem of 
training teachers of industries.-^ 

(i) Certification. — The Committee finds that 
" the State should be the sole certifying authority." 
The study is limited to the consideration of state- 
aided vocational schools. The financial authority 

1 Bulletin No. ig, The Selection and Training of Teachers for State- 
Aided Industrial Schools for Boys and Men, 1914. National Society 
for the Promotion of Industrial Education. 



114 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

usually demands supervisory power as a precaution 
against waste and inefficiency. Hence follows the 
corollary that the State must decide who may teach. 
The examination should include four things: 

(a) written examination; (b) credentials; (c) per- 
sonal interview ; (d) practical demonstration. The 
certification of industrial teachers should be in 
charge of a department "separate and apart from 
the certification of regular teachers." 

(2) Sources of Supply, — For the sake of clearness, 
vocational teachers are divided by the committee 
into (a) shop teachers, and (b) teachers of related 
subjects. Three sources of supply are suggested 
for the former; namely: (a) the industries; 

(b) technical institutions; (c) normal and training 
schools. Each of these sources contributes desir- 
able elements of a shop teacher's equipment, but 
none of them seems to be able to produce a sufficient 
and satisfactory supply of teachers. The industry 
gives the trade experience which is a fundamental 
prerequisite of a teacher of trades, but this experi- 
ence is not sufficient without some general educa- 
tion and teaching ability. Technical institutions, 
such as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology 
and the engineering schools of colleges, train men 



THE TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS 115 

for vocations differing widely from that of shop 
instructor in an industrial school. The graduates 
usually have no trade experience, and they are not 
trained to teach. Furthermore, they command 
better pay than that received by a shop teacher. 
Normal schools represent the final stage of a con- 
tinuous process of education beginning in childhood. 
They do not, therefore, have trade-trained students, 
nor can they themselves furnish the trade training. 
The conclusion is that the chief source of supply 
must he the trades. 

For the supply of teachers of related subjects 
four sources are suggested: {a) the industry; 
(h) engineering schools of college grade; {c) the 
intermediate technical school; (d) the normal 
school. The trade furnishes men with trade ex- 
perience who lack technical knowledge. The en- 
gineering school supplies the technical knowledge, 
but cannot give practical contact with trade. 
The intermediate technical school, such as Pratt 
Institute or the Department of Applied Industries 
of Carnegie Institute of Technology, promises to he 
the most satisfactory source of supply. Preparatory 
schools for teachers, like normal schools and educa- 
tional departments of colleges, give the student 



ii6 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

adequate knowledge of a general character; but 
such knowledge is frequently not of the right kind. 
It is not organized with special reference to any 
industry. 

(3) Proposed Schemes for Training Shop Teachers, 
— The committee proposes four possible plans : — 

(a) Scholarships. — Select a shopman who has 
an interest in teaching and give him a scholarship 
of not less than $500 per year to get his training 
as a teacher in some institution already established. 
This plan has the special merit of commanding all 
the pupiFs time, attention, and energy in an all-day 
school without subjecting him to the hardship of a 
total loss of wages. 

{b) Special State Industrial-and-Normal School, — 
The industrial department of the school should be 
organized on a unit trade basis; that is, it should 
consist of a series of schools, each fitting for some 
one trade. In connection with this institution, a 
normal school should be operated which could utilize 
the industrial school as a part of its facilities for 
observation, practice teaching, and study under 
the best conditions. The Vocational School for 
Boys in New York might serve as the industrial 
haK of such a school. With comparatively little 



THE TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS 117 

additional expense a normal department could be 
organized, and then New York would have a first- 
class training school for vocational teachers. 

{c) Special Day Course in an Intermediate Tech- 
nical School. — The objection to this plan is the 
economic difficulty involved in the loss of wages. 
The objection is met by the scholarship plan. 

{d) Special Evening Course in Some Technical 
School or College. — One objection to an evening 
school course is the limited number of hours avail- 
able for schooling. Another is that the student is 
not in good condition after a hard day's labor to 
engage in severe mental effort. The advantages are 
{a) that the student suffers no loss of wages ; ih) the 
sacrifice involved is in itself an effective method of 
selecting promising material; {c) practice teaching 
can be had in the evening school ; {d) and the plan 
opens an abundant source of supply for trade- 
trained teachers. 

5. Conclusion. — It will be seen from this brief 
abstract of the committee's proposals, that prac- 
tically every one of its schemes has been anticipated 
by European experience. The committee believes 
that the trades must be the chief source of supply 
for shop teachers. Munich came to the same con- 



Ii8 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

elusion long ago. The committee thinks scholar- 
ships will be necessary to induce men with trade 
experience to take the pedagogical training. Wurt- 
temberg has long had in operation a similar plan, 
but different in an important particular. There 
experienced teachers are sent to trade schools to 
learn shop practice. Finally, the committee recom- 
mends a combination industrial-and-normal school, 
where the pupil can get trade experience and peda- 
gogical training in one institution. Practically the 
same thing is done in the famous training school for 
vocational teachers at Karlsruhe, where the condi- 
tions of admission are that the student must have 
completed the seventh year of a secondary school 
(three years of an American High School) and the 
first three classes of the Building Trades School in 
Karlsruhe. 

The situation may be summed up by saying that 
a teacher of trades must be expert in two arts, — 
the art of teaching and the art of some craft. In 
general, the method of securing teachers is to select 
some person who has already become expert in one 
of these arts, and then make him proficient in the 
other art. We either take a teacher and teach him 
a trade, or take a craftsman and teach him how to 



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THE TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS 119 

teach. By prolonging the period of apprenticeship 
it will be possible, in a combination trade-and- 
normal school, to teach both arts at once or in the 
same institution. If the candidate is already expert 
in one art, the State has to pay for the experience in 
the form of a subsidy. If the pupil has no skill in 
either art, added expense is entailed by prolonging 
the period of training. In either case the State 
must pay for skill in two arts. 



CHAPTER VII 
VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 

I. Scope. — By common consent vocational guid- 
ance has become associated with the general move- 
ment in behalf of vocational education. The sub- 
ject is so new that few of us know the connotation 
of the term. A few years ago we had a national 
conference on vocational guidance in New York, 
with delegates from scores of cities. One of the 
writer's friends, who was a prominent government 
official at the time, accepted an invitation to deliver 
an address at one of the sessions of the conference. 
Immediately after making this engagement he came 
to see me and said : "I have promised to deliver an 
address on vocational guidance, or some such thing. 
Tell me what is vocational guidance. I never 
heard of it ! '' I explained as well as I could and 
referred him to some literature. His address made 
a hit. But he confessed afterward that he learned 
from other speakers much more than they learned 
from him! 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE I2I 

In general terms vocational guidance includes 
the study of the child ; the preparation of the child 
for a specific calling; the study of industries; and 
the placing of the child into a position with a future, 
which he can fill with profit to himself and his em- 
ployer. The chief end of the business is not, as 
many suppose, finding a job. Securing work is 
usually carried on in connection with vocational 
guidance, but it is only a small part of the field 
covered. The movement has already made large 
progress in New York, Boston, Chicago, Cleve- 
land, Philadelphia, Pittsburg, St. Louis, and other 
cities. 

A study in detail of the work in New York and 
Boston will show us what vocational guidance has 
come to mean. 

11. Vocational Guidance in New York City. — 
The following facts are taken chiefly from the 
Tenth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor ^^ 
which is wholly devoted to industrial education. 

In New York the father of vocational guidance 
is Mr. Eli W. Weaver,^ a teacher in the Boys' High 
School of Brooklyn. With the enthusiasm of Pes- 

1 Washington, D.C., 1910. 

2 Of conditions in New York, the author is in a position to speak 
somewhat from personal knowledge. 



122 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

talozzi and the zeal of a missionary he has devoted 
his leisure hours for many years to the welfare of 
boys who leave school to go to work. Originally 
Mr. Weaver's efforts were devoted wholly to the 
placing of boys. Other features of guidance de- 
veloped gradually from the placement experience. 
For example, it was found desirable to keep in touch 
with the boy after he had his position to see what 
he did with it, to help him overcome difficulties, to 
keep him informed as to opportunities for increasing 
his efficiency, and to incite him to profit by such 
opportunities. It was found necessary, also, to 
study employers, the inducements they offer, the 
kind of help they need, and how they treat their 
employees. As a result of this line of investigation 
a large amount of information concerning industries 
accumulated. This enabled Mr. Weaver to place 
boys so wisely that the employer who once tried the 
plan always came back for more help. 

I. The Students' Aid Committee. — From these 
small beginnings of a single unselfish individual, an 
important organization has been evolved. Through 
the High School Teachers' Association, each high 
school in the city, by 1908, had a " students' aid 
committee," which carried on the work inaugurated 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 123 

by Mr. Weaver in Boys' High School. The object 
of the aid committee at this time was stated as 
follows : — 

(a) To gather information as to the qualifications 
necessary for entering the skilled trades and pro- 
fessions. 

(b) To secure information as to the opportunities 
the city offers to young people who wish to prepare 
for such trades and professions, and as to the time 
required, and expense involved. 

(c) To ascertain what restrictions are placed by 
labor unions and professional bodies upon candi- 
dates who desire to enter trades and professions. 

(d) To ascertain the average remuneration and 
relative permanency of trades, commercial pursuits, 
and professions. 

Here is a specimen of the kind of information 
that was thus made available to young people seek- 
ing employment : — 

(i) "The average annual earnings of women over sixteen 
years of age in the shirt factories of New York is $327 ; the 
average earnings of over three hundred stenographers em- 
ployed in the several departments of the city governments of 
which the pay rolls were examined was $954. These women 
secured their appointments because of their special training. 
Their income from their work is over $600 a year more than 



124 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

is the income of the factory women referred to. At the age of 
twenty-five, a woman can also secure such an annual income 
for life by a cash payment of $12,000 to a life insurance com- 
pany. This means that a thorough training in English, 
stenography, and t3rpewriting is worth as much in this market 
as the annual income of $12,000. 

(2) "The average annual earnings of four hundred and one 
nurses in the city service is $760. The average annual earn- 
ings of over twelve thousand women making women's clothing 
according to the Census Bureau, is $398. 

" The four years spent by a girl in high school and the two 
years in a nurses' training school enables her to earn $362 
a year more than the sewing women earn. The sewing woman 
could increase her annual income by $362, if she would buy 
an annuity in a life insurance company which would bring 
her $362 a year. This annuity would cost her over $7000 in 
cash. The special training of the nurse girl must be worth 
this $7000." 

2. A Central Vocational Bureau, — By 1910 the 
aid committee had demonstrated its usefulness to 
the satisfaction of the financial authorities, and 
therefore each high school was granted an appro- 
priation of $250 for the necessary expenses of voca- 
tional guidance, and a central vocational bureau 
was organized to take general charge of the work. 
This bureau is in charge of a committee composed 
of representatives of associations of employers, 
labor unions, educational, social, and church workers, 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 125 

and contributors, together with school authorities 
under the direction of the City Superintendent. 

(i) Functions. — The functions of this bureau as 
formulated by the committee are as follows : — 

(a) To offer advice and direction to young people 
of exceptional abilities who cannot receive the neces- 
sary assistance from the vocational teachers of their 
respective schools. 

{h) To serve as a means of communication be- 
tween employers and the employment agencies or 
vocation teachers of the several schools and colleges 
from which students go out to work. 

(c) To collect information in regard to the oppor- 
tunities for workers of ordinary ability and others 
of exceptional training ; information concerning the 
personal and educational qualifications required for 
admission into different lines of work, and concern- 
ing the tests of efficiency which are set for pro- 
motion into the different grades of the same lines of 
work; and information regarding legal enactments 
and labor-union restrictions, this information to be 
gathered from : — 

1. Associations of employers, 

2. Individual employers, 

3 . Statistical publications and government reports, 



126 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

4. Social workers, 

5. Vocational records of workers of known ca- 
pacities. 

{d) To make available through special publica- 
tions, lectures, pamphlets, and conferences, for the 
use of students who are to choose a vocation and 
also for parents and social workers, general infor- 
mation in regard to the opportunities which are 
offered in the city, and to supply committees on 
courses of study or on syllabi of instruction with 
material which will enable them to increase the 
vocational content of the teaching material in the 
several subjects of study ; and to supply the employ- 
ment agencies of the several schools with specific 
and confidential information in regard to the 
terms and conditions of work with particular 
employers. 

{e) To keep a registry of students of the evening 
trade and continuation schools who are prepared 
because of the completion of the prescribed courses 
of study for employment in higher forms of service 
than those in which they are engaged. 

(f) To assist students of high capacity to complete 
advanced courses of study : — 

I. By means of scholarships, 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 127 

2. Through part-time employment, 

3. Through vacation employment. 

III. Vocational Guidance in Boston. — In Bos- 
ton a number of organizations have assumed the 
functions of vocational guidance. At the head of 
these is the Vocation Bureau. Other bodies work- 
ing in harmony with the Bureau are the committee 
on vocational direction of the School Board, the 
Home and School Association, the Girls' Trade Edu- 
cation League, and the Women's Municipal League. 
The School Board's committee was formed for the 
express purpose of beginning the work of guidance 
within the schools before the pupils leave the ele- 
mentary grades. The three independent organiza- 
tions appoint delegates to sit with the executive 
board of the Vocation Bureau. This arrangement 
assures the closest possible cooperation of all con- 
cerned and avoids duplication and waste of effort. 

The Vocation Bureau was organized in 1909 by 
public-spirited men and women in the fields of 
labor, education, commerce, manufacture, and social 
work. Its work is carried on by a director and an 
executive board of thirteen members. There is no 
charge of any kind for its services. The Bureau is 
not primarily an employment office, nor does it 



128 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

prescribe vocations for children. Its chief function 
is gathering rehable information about occupations, 
and applying such information to enable children and 
parents in the intelligent choice of a career. It is 
also conducting a training school for teachers and 
school officials who have been assigned as vocational 
counselors by the school department. 

I. Work of the Vocation Bureau. — The work of 
the Vocation Bureau is divided into the following 
four groups of activities : — 

(a) To maintain an office for the collection and 
dissemination of information about occupations. 

(b) To impress upon parents and children the 
need of general education and special training for 
desirable occupations, and to prolong, by advice 
and assistance, the school period of young people. 

(c) To offer personal counsel to young people in 
school and at work to enable them to plan wisely 
for their educational and vocational progress. 

(d) To consult with people of all ages who have 
personal problems concerning their vocations. 

(i) Information. — Under the head of informa- 
tion, the Bureau has on hand the results of the 
study of more than one hundred occupations. This 
information is carefully filed and is employed as a 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 129 

basis for vocational counsel. Here is a brief ab- 
stract of a study of 

The Machinist 

"A machinist is a constructor of machines and engines, 
or one versed in the principles of machines ; in the general 
sense, one who invents or constructs mechanical devices of 
any kind. The two grand divisions of the occupation are 
general machine work and tool making. The pattern maker 
is a woodworker. The four divisions of people receiving 
wages are the apprentice boy, the journeyman, the foreman, 
and the superintendent. The chief danger of the occupation 
is from dust in cutting and grinding metals, especially in brass 
working. There is an ever-widening field for the expert ma- 
chinist, and the future of the industry will be good in all lines. 

"Pay in the beginning ranges from $3 to $8 a week, accord- 
ing to age, conditions of apprenticeship, or shop entered. 
Boys do errands, act as messengers to machinists, do drilling, 
milling, lathe work, planing, shaping, and run light machines. 
A young man, after a period of learning such processes, earns 
from $12 to $15 a week. A journeyman earns $2.50 or $2.75 
a day. A foreman earns from $21 to $25 a week. The salary 
of the superintendent ranges from several hundred to many 
thousand dollars a year. 

"In this occupation a boy is rarely taken under fifteen 
years of age. He should have a grammar-school education. 
There are found many graduates of high and technical schools. 
These generally become foremen or superintendents. A boy 
should have natural mechanical skill and should be strong 
and in good health." 



I30 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

(2) Education. — The second branch of the Bu- 
reau's activity is concerned with the further educa- 
tion of young people, whether they be still in school 
or already employed. There is on file in the office 
detailed information as to educational opportunities 
in the vicinity of Boston. One chart supplies a list 
of schools for industrial training; another gives a 
list of institutions that supply advanced vocational 
training; a third offers a Hst of schools, public and 
philanthropic, where commercial instruction may be 
had ; a fourth gives the list of organized opportuni- 
ties for those who are physically handicapped, such 
as the blind, the deaf, and the crippled. 

(3) Counsel. — Under the third head there is a 
vast and complex system for giving advice to young 
people concerning their further progress. There 
are daily conferences for this purpose. Numerous 
publications of the Bureau are at the service of 
applicants. Speeches and lectures are given, and a 
library is maintained. 

(4) Vocational Advising. — Lastly, there is a 
branch for general or unclassified advice to all sorts 
of people. The man who has no fixed plan of life 
comes for assistance. Young men employed in 
various places of the city come with reference to 



VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 131 

changes of vocation. Parents come regularly to 
consult about the welfare of their children. Em- 
ployers seek the advice of the bureau on various 
matters. 

IV. Stimmary. — From this sketch of the work 
of vocational guidance in New York and Boston, it 
is evident that the employment bureau is an insig- 
nificant feature of a very large enterprise. Lack 
of self-knowledge is the cause of many tragedies. 
" Know thyself/' is the first exhortation of the Voca- 
tion Bureau to youth. But it does not stop with 
advice. It suppKes the facilities and material for 
self-study. Secondly, the Bureau makes a survey 
of the field of human industry and offers to the 
youth accurate information concerning the condi- 
tions, qualifications, dangers, rewards, and pros- 
pects of the various kinds of employment. Having 
set youth to the study of self and the study of in- 
dustry with a view to a wise choice of an occupa- 
tion, the Bureau finally exerts its inspirational 
offices to induce the young to make thorough prepa- 
ration for the chosen vocation; and offers such 
assistance in this preparation as may be desired or 
required. An employment bureau in itself is of 
small value to an immature child. There is no 



132 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

profit in bringing the boy and the job together, 
unless the two are adapted to each other. 

The matters of prime importance are an inteUi- 
gent comprehension of one's capabiHties, a wide 
knowledge of employments, and thorough prepara- 
tion for one's chosen life work. 



CHAPTER VIII 

APPRENTICESHIP AND COMPULSORY 
EDUCATION 

I. European Experience. — In the days of old 
all arts and crafts were learned from masters by a 
system of apprenticeship. The vocational school is 
a modern substitute or supplement of apprentice- 
ship. Therefore no account of vocational education 
is complete which fails to take note of the relation 
of the apprentice to the industry, the school, and 
the State. 

I. Switzerland} — There is in this country a 
State apprenticeship system supervised by a central 
committee of the Swiss Union of Arts and Trades 
in cooperation with the National Department of 
Industries and the Cantonal and Communal labor 
organizations. The apprentice enters into a formal 
contract with his employer which defines the rights 
and duties of both parties. It specifies the length 
of term, the hours of labor, and the time when the 

^ See Bulletin No. ig, 1913, U. S. Commissioner of Education, p. 64. 

133 



134 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

apprentice shall attend a trade continuation school. 
The master is bound to teach the youth the whole 
trade. At the end of the period the young work- 
man must submit to an examination prepared by the 
Department of Industry and the Communal Coun- 
cil. The test is partly on theory, but chiefly on 
practical skill. If he passes, he receives a diploma, 
Apprentices are encouraged by a system of prizes, 
such as deposits in savings banks, books, instru- 
ments, and tools, which are awarded to the candi- 
dates passing the best examinations. 

2. Germany, — In Germany the laws and courts 
make a sharp distinction between young people who 
are learning a trade and those who are merely em- 
ployed. The apprentice is one who is employed in 
an industry primarily to learn its technique. He is 
called a Lehrling. The other, who works primarily 
for wages, is known as an ungelernte Arheiter (un- 
skilled worker). In America the term operatives 
covers the case of young people who are employed 
in the mills. They attend machines or become 
skilled in a single operation; but they learn no 
trade. In Germany it is considered of the utmost 
importance that young persons employed in the 
industries should be apprentices rather than opera- 



APPRENTICESHIP 135 

tives; for on this distinction depends not only the 
individual development and well-being of the 
worker, but welfare of the State as well, since the 
youth of to-day is the citizen of to-morrow. 

(i) The Imperial Industrial Law. — Apprentice- 
ship in Germany is minutely regulated by a national 
law. Only citizens may employ apprentices. For 
handwork, the employer must be at least twenty- 
four years of age and have passed the examination 
of a master workman. He has authority to teach 
not only his own trade, but also a related industry. 

Children may leave school at the age of fourteen 
and go to work. They have the option of entering 
upon skilled or unskilled work. The temptation is 
to choose the latter on account of the immediate 
prospect of wages. Consequently, many children, 
whose parents are oppressed by poverty or handi- 
capped by lack of foresight, become ungelehrte Ar- 
beiter, receiving wages that range from $1.92 to 
$2.40 per week the first year, and from $3.60 to 
$4.80 the fourth year. 

Some of the more fortunate parents keep their 
children in a secondary school until the age of six- 
teen. At this age the boy receives a one-year mili- 
tary service certificate, and he is much more desir- 



136 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

able as an apprentice than a boy of fourteen on 
account of his greater maturity and more extensive 
education. 

(2) Apprenticeship Contract, — The contract by 
which an apprentice is bound to a master is required 
by law to be in writing, but is held valid under cer- 
tain conditions if it is only verbal. In smaller 
factories the written contract is frequently omitted 
on account of the ignorance or carelessness of 
parents. The terms of the contract must 
specify : — 

(a) The industry ; 

(5) The length of service ; 

(c) The mutual services required ; and 

{d) The conditions under which the contract may 
be broken. Every contract has a probationary 
period, during which either party may withdraw. 
This period is normally four weeks, but may be pro- 
longed to three months by mutual agreement. In 
order to insure proper supervision of apprentice- 
ship the law requires the employer to turn over the 
contract to the local police authorities on demand, 
or to a gild, if the master is a gild member. In 
Prussia the contract further provides for : 

{e) Compulsory insurance against sickness ; 



APPRENTICESHIP 137 

(/) Time and opportunity to make a " master- 
piece '' ; and 

(g) Specifications as to who shall pay for the ma- 
terial of the masterpiece and who shall finally own it. 

The master must teach the whole trade, or at 
least all kinds of work occurring in his business. 
His instruction is all practical, and need not cover 
the theoretical phase. He must himself train the 
apprentice or assign a properly quahfied assistant 
to do the work. He is further obliged to look after 
the conduct and morals of the apprentice. 

For a violation of the contract the employer is 
liable to a fine of not more than 150 marks or to 
imprisonment for not more than four weeks. 

(a) Mutual Services. — The services required of 
the apprentice include : obedience, truth, industry, 
and probity ; the performance of mechanical duties 
other than those of his trade; the proper care of 
tools intrusted to him; attendance at an improve- 
ment school. He may be discharged for stealing; 
deception; disobedience; carelessness about fire ; the 
commitment of grave offenses against the master or 
members of his family; harming goods of the em- 
ployer or a fellow workman; immoral conduct in 
the master's family ; neglect of duties in the shop ; 



138 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

failure to attend school. He may withdraw from 
the contract if his master abuses him or refuses to 
pay his wages, or if the business is dangerous to his 
health. 

(b) Examination. — At the conclusion of the term 
of apprenticeship the master is obliged to give the 
apprentice a certificate stating the name of the trade, 
the length of service, the proficiency attained, and 
conduct. If the apprenticeship is in handwork, the 
master must give the apprentice opportunity to 
produce his masterpiece and to take the prescribed 
State examination. This is conducted by the local 
gild or chamber of industry. The examining com- 
mittee consists of a chairman and two or more 
assistants, at least half of whom must themselves 
have passed the masters' examination. For admis- 
sion to the examination the apprentice offers his 
apprenticeship certificate and his certificate of at- 
tendance at an improvement school. If he passes, 
he becomes a journeyman and receives a one-year 
certificate of military service. If he fails to pass, 
he may receive further instruction from a new 
master at the expense of his old master. 

II. History of the American Apprenticeship Sys- 
tem. — The modern apprenticeship system has its 



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APPRENTICESHIP 139 

origin in the medieval handicraft work. The train- 
ing of the people in those days was in the hands of 
the gilds, of which, at the end of the fifteenth cen- 
tury, there were thirty thousand in England alone. 
There were gilds for most of the breadwinning arts 
in which men engaged — craft gilds, art gilds, mer- 
chant gilds, trade gilds. -^ Boys were apprenticed to 
men following an occupation such as the youth or 
his parents preferred, and then began the training. 
The period of tutelage was fixed in most cases at 
seven years. The apprentice usually lived in the 
house of his master, who provided him with board 
and clothes and taught him the art and mysteries of 
his trade. The master and the pupil were in a sense 
on a plane of equality, inasmuch as both came from 
the same social class, and the pupil looked forward 
to the time when he himself would be a master. At 
the conclusion of the term of service the young 
man became a journeyman workman. He usually 
wandered away from his native town, sometimes 
going over seas to learn the foreign secrets of his 
craft. After three years of such experience, he 
presented evidence of his accomplishments. " If 

^ Note, for example, Rembrandt's famous painting in the Royal 
Museum at Amsterdam, entitled Syndics of the Cloth Merchants' Gild. 



I40 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

he were a craftsman or an artisan, he made a lock 
or a bolt or some more artistic piece of work in the 
metals base or precious, and if this sample was con- 
sidered worthy of them by his fellow-gildsmen, he 
was admitted as a master in the gild. This was the 
highest rank of workman, and the men who held it 
were supposed to be able to do anything that had 
been done by fellow- workmen up to that time. 
The piece that he presented was then called a master- 
piece, and it is from this that our good old EngHsh 
word masterpiece was derived."^ 

I. Legal Indentures. — In early times apprentice- 
ships in the United States were much Hke the me- 
dieval system. Legal indentures were the rule, in 
which the boy was bound to a manufacturer, mer- 
chant, craftsman, or mariner for a period usually 
ending at the youth's majority.^ Both parties 
appeared in court and swore to carry out the terms 
of the contract. For the boy the indenture involved 
a loss of Hberty, for if he ran away, he was classed 
in effect as a slave. He lived with his master, Uke 

^Education: How Old the New, by James J. Walsh, Fordham Uni- 
versity Press, New York, 1910, p. 158. 

% * For the facts of American apprenticeship the author is indebted 
largely to Bulletin No. ig, 1913, of the U. S. Commissioner of Educa- 
tion, entitled German Industrial Education and Its Lessons for the United 
States, by Holmes Beckwith. . 



APPRENTICESHIP 141 

his medieval predecessor, and like him he did odd 
jobs by which he learned nothing and by which his 
apprenticeship was unduly prolonged. 

The industrial revolution discussed above and the 
expanding ideas of personal liberty caused the in- 
denture gradually to grow into disfavor, and by 
i860 it had so far declined that it was the exception 
rather than the rule. The effect of the discontin- 
uance of a legal contract is illustrated by an incident 
within the personal knowledge of the author : — 

(i) A Concrete Case. — A certain boy named Joe 
was apprenticed in the year 1870 to a manufacturer 
to learn the trade of carriage painting. There was 
only a verbal contract, by the terms of which Joe 
was bound for two and a half years to do such work 
in the shop as the employer might direct. He was 
required in addition to perform household drudgery 
in the employer's family, such as running errands, 
setting the table, washing dishes, and cleaning 
house. The employer on his part agreed to teach 
the boy the trade of painting and trimming car- 
riages. There were at that time only four trades 
involved in building a carriage ; namely, those of 
the wheelwright, the blacksmith, the painter, and 
the trimmer. The boy was therefore to be taught 



142 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

to complete a carriage after its arrival from the 
blacksmith shop. In addition to the teaching of the 
two trades, the employer engaged to take Joe into 
his own family and furnish him free board and lodg- 
ing. At the conclusion of the apprenticeship he prom- 
ised to pay the boy twenty-five dollars in cash. 
To a widowed mother was left the duty of supplying 
Joe's clothing during his term of apprenticeship. 

There was no guarantee on either side that the 
terms of the contract would be lived up to. Joe 
was set to work at priming and sandpapering run- 
ning gears, rubbing down filling, grinding paints, and 
other similar disagreeable jobs. From the begin- 
ning he more than earned his board and lodging. 
He was not permitted to know the secrets of the finer 
parts of the art, such as putting on finishing coats, 
varnishing, striping, etc. Trimming he did not 
learn at all. At the end of the first year the employer 
sold out and little Joe was left with a year's expe- 
rience and a broken contract. He found another 
employer, however, who made use of such skill as 
the boy had acquired, but taught him no more. 
The boy gradually picked up his trade in a fashion ; 
but there was no one whose business it was to inquire 
whether he learned much or Httle. 



APPRENTICESHIP 143 

2. The Entrepreneur. — The next stage of the 
revolution brings us to the modern era of great in- 
dustrial enterprises and extreme specialization in 
production, caused chiefly by the substitution of 
the machine for hand labor. The " master " of 
medieval and early United States craftsmanship 
now becomes the " captain of industry/' or what the 
French call the entrepreneur. He no longer trains 
the apprentice himself, but delegates this duty to 
subordinates. He no longer knows the apprentice, 
he does not work with him. He cares Kttle for his 
personal welfare. The industry is so organized that 
it is unprofitable to the business to teach the boy 
the whole trade. It pays better to make him expert 
in some one process and keep him at that. The 
manager can get journeymen trained elsewhere, 
especially in Europe, so he is not interested in the 
production of skilled workmen. 

3. The Trade-union and Apprenticeship. — The ap- 
prenticeship system has been revived, however, in a 
new form. The Bureau of Statistics of Labor in Massa- 
chusetts ascertained in 1906 that out of fifty-eight 
employers, thirty-one had a system of apprentice- 
ship. Of one hundred four officers of trade-unions, 
fifty-five represent trades where apprenticeships 



144 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

were found. A similar study in^'igoy showed that 
of one hundred twenty-four Ohio manufacturers, 
fifty-eight maintained a system of apprenticeship. 
Mr. Beckwith is of the opinion that the average 
throughout the country is lower than that of the 
cases cited; that is, less than 50%^ of employing 
establishments assume the responsibility of training 
skilled workmen. Among the railroads, fifty-five 
have 7053 apprentices in three hundred sixty-eight 
shops, while sixty-seven shops have no apprentices. 
According to the Vocation Bureau of Boston forty- 
three States have laws governing apprenticeships, 
but most of these laws are dead letters. 

Dr. J. M. Motley ^ has shown that apprentice- 
ships in the United States were at first governed by 
law or indenture, then by custom, then by trade- 
unions, and, lastly, by agreements between employer 
and employee. He says : '^ Of the 120 national and 
international trade-unions, with a total of 1,676,200 
members afiiliated in 1904 with the American 
Federation of Labor, 50 unions, with a membership 
of 766,417, do not attempt to maintain apprentice- 
ship systems. The remaining national unions, 

^Apprenticeship in American Trade Unions, by J. M. Motley, Johns 
Hopkins University Press, 1907. 



APPRENTICESHIP 145 

that is, about 70 of the 120 affihated in 1904 with the 
American Federation of Labor, with a membership 
of 900,000, together with some half dozen im- 
afhhated national unions, attempt more or less 
successfully to enforce apprenticeship regulations." 
• The attempt of the union to control apprentice- 
ships after the manner of the ancient gilds by in- 
sisting upon journeymen's ability as a condition of 
membership is a failure. " Apprentices, after ob- 
taining a smattering of a trade or becoming half 
trained, frequently run away and take up work 
elsewhere as journeymen." ^ 

It is evident that one of the pressing needs of the 
hour is a series of new laws for the States governing 
apprenticeship. 

One of the most advanced of such laws in the 
United States is the Wisconsin Apprentice Law of 
191 1. (See Appendix VII.) 

III. Compulsory Education.^ — There is a tendency i 
everywhere to couple child-labor and compulsory 
education laws. In the evolution of society child-! 
labor regulation appears first. As a community 

1 Beckwith : op. cit., p. 15. 

2 The facts submitted in the section on compulsory education have 
been drawn largely from U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 2, 
1914, Compulsory School Attendance, 



146 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

passes from an agricultural to a manufacturing stage 
child-labor laws become necessary to prevent the 
exploitation of childhood in factories. In Arnold 
Bennett's Clay hanger is an eloquent passage show- 
ing conditions in England so late as 1835 : — 

"At the age of seven, his education being complete he 
was summoned into the world. . . . The man Darius was 
first taken to work by his mother. . . . The next morning, 
at half past five, Darius began his career in earnest. He 
was ' mould-runner ' to a * muffin-maker,' a muffin being not 
a comestible but a small plate, fashioned by its maker on a 
mould. The business of Darius was to run as hard as he 
could with the mould, and a newly-created plate adhering 
thereto, into the drying-stove. This 'stove' was a room 
lined with shelves, and having a red-hot stove and stove-pipe 
in the middle. As no man of seven could reach the upper 
shelves a pair of steps was provided for Darius, and up these 
he had to scamper. Each mould with its plate had to be 
leaned carefully against the wall, and if the soft clay of a 
new-born plate was damaged, Darius was knocked down. 
The atmosphere outside the stove was chill, but owing to 
the heat of the stove, Darius was obliged to work half naked. 
His sweat ran down his cheeks, and down his chest, and 
down his back, making white channels, and lastly it soaked 
his hair." 1 

1 The author has no warrant for accepting this story as history, except 
the intrinsic probability of the story itself. Americans need not cross 
the ocean, even in this year of grace, to see Childhood outraged by In- 
dustry. 



APPRENTICESHIP 147 

Child-labor legislation is invariably followed by 
compulsory education. The sequence is being illus- 
trated at this moment by the States of southern 
Europe, by Russia, and by some of the States of the 
American Union. 

I. Germany. — The compulsory attendance serv- 
ice of Germany has long been the envy of the rest 
of the world. Out of a school population of 5,754,728 
in Prussia, only 548 children escaped the law in 1901. 
The results of the strict enforcement of compulsory 
education laws are seen in the almost total abolition 
of illiteracy, the high general average of education, 
and the industrial efficiency of the nation. Com- 
pared with conditions in our own country, where on 
an average, according to Professor Thorndike's 
findings, only about one-third of the children 
graduate from an elementary school, the following 
percentages of elementary graduation in certain 
German cities are illuminating : Bremen, 98.6 ; 
Frankfort on the Main, 99.2; Wiesbaden, 99.4; 
Leipzig, 99.5; Dresden, 99.6. 

The Imperial Child-labor Law forbids, without 
exception, the employment of children under twelve. 
A thorough system of inspection by church and civil 
authorities and the registration of children at a 



148 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

central bureau are among the means employed to 
enforce the compulsory attendance and child-labor 
laws. Information concerning illegal absence from 
school is given by the school authorities to the police, 
whose duty it is to enforce attendance and prosecute 
delinquent parents or guardians. The punishment 
prescribed by law is fine or imprisonment or both. 
Attendance at continuation schools is left to the dis- 
cretion of local authorities. In most states a pupil 
must attend such a school in connection with his 
apprenticeship until he is seventeen. In Wurttem- 
berg the compulsory age is eighteen, and a law is 
now pending in the Prussian Landtag making 
eighteen the limit in that kingdom. 

2. England. — Parliament has by statute fixed 
certain minimum requirements and has left to local 
authorities autonomy within the limits prescribed. 
The first law, passed in 1876, provided a penalty 
for employing children under ten years of age and 
children over ten who could not show the required 
certificate of previous school attendance or of pro- 
ficiency in reading, writing, and arithmetic. In 
1 88 1 these provisions were extended so as to require 
all school districts to define the age limits for exemp- 
tion from school attendance. The new law em- 



APPRENTICESHIP 149 

powered the Education Department to ^ these 
limits in case the local authority failed to act. The 
act of 1900 empowers school attendance officers to 
make fourteen years the upper compulsory limit, and 
provides a penalty of twenty shillings for the viola- 
tion of the law. A child may be exempted at the 
age of thirteen provided he is credited with 350 
" attendances " for each of the preceding ^ve years. 
Children between twelve and fourteen may have 
partial exemption by having credit for 300 " at- 
tendances '' during each of the preceding five years. 
The results of this legislation to date are as follows : 
Seven of the local authorities have fixed the com- 
pulsory age from five to thirteen. All the rest (327) 
have made the period from five to fourteen. 

The enforcement of the law is primarily in the 
hands of teachers and school officers. When they 
fail the case is turned over to a magistrate. Teachers 
complain that magistrates are too lenient; they 
recommend that the enforcement of the law be in- 
trusted to the educational authorities. In proof of 
the alleged laxity of the courts the federation of 
education committees, at their annual meeting in 
1 91 2, cited the fact that 720,000 children in England 
and Wales were daily absent from school. They 



I50 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

also asserted that the school registers contain from 
50,000 to 60,000 children mentally deficient, only 
12,000 of whom are provided for in classes suitable 
for their condition.^ 

3. Scotland. — In Scotland the compulsory age 
is from five to thirteen. The Act of 1908 authorizes 
school boards to make attendance at continuation 
schools compulsory. The enforcement is in the 
hands of magistrates, and parents are subject to 
fine or imprisonment for violations. 

4. Ireland. — The law here makes the compulsory 
age from six to fourteen, with certain exceptions. 

5. France. — All children between the ages of 
six and thirteen are required to attend school. A 
local school committee, of which the mayor of the 
commune is chairnian, is charged with the duty of 
enforcing attendance. Each year the mayor pre- 
pares a list of the children of school age, whose 
parents must notify him whether the children are to 
be instructed by public or private agencies. The 
mayor also sends to the director of each school a 
list of the children who should attend. At the end 
of each month the director sends to the mayor an 

1 Anna Tolman Smith in U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 2, 
1 914: Compulsory School Attendance. 



APPRENTICESHIP 151 

abstract of the school register, with the number of 
absences and the reasons therefor. The school 
committee may summon parents for warning and 
censure. In case of renewed violations the respon- 
sible parties are brought before a magistrate for fine 
or imprisonment. 

This system has not been satisfactory in practice. 
A bill pending in the Chamber of Deputies abolishes 
the communal school committee and transfers their 
duties to the justice of the peace. 

6. Switzerland. — The Federal constitution re- 
quires the Cantons to provide sufficient elementary 
education free to all children " without prejudice 
to freedom of faith and conscience." In fulfillment 
of this obHgation every Canton has passed a com- 
pulsory education law, and in seventeen Cantons 
compulsion applies to continuation schools. The 
compulsory period varies in length in the several 
Cantons from six to nine years. 

7. The United States} — All the States of our 
Union have compulsory education laws except 
Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, South Caro- 
Hna, and Texas. In Maryland, Louisiana, Virginia, 

1 In the United States we have 5,500,000 illiterates. It has been 
estimated that the annual cost of this ilhteracy in underproduction is 
$500,000,000. 



152 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

and Arkansas, the laws do not apply to the entire 
State. In this, as in other educational reforms, 
Massachusetts has been a pioneer. That famous 
Order of the General Court, issued in 1647, which is 
the foundation of the American common school, 
is also the warrant for all the compulsory education 
laws of the land. The order contains this provision : 

"It being one chiefe project of that old deluder, Satan, to 
keep men from the knowledge of the scriptures, as in former 
times, keeping them in an unknowne tongue, so in these 
latter times, by perswading them from the use of tongues, so 
that at least, the true sence and meaning of the original 
might bee clouded with glosses of saint seeming deceivers; 
and that learning may not bee buried in the grave of our 
forefathers in church and commonwealth, the Lord assist- 
ing our indeavors ; it is therefore ordered hy this courte and au- 
thority thereof, That eyery towneship whin this jurisdiction, 
after that the Lord hath increased them to the number of 
fifty howsholdeYs, shall then forthwith appointe one within 
theire towne to teach all such children as shall resotte to him, 
to write and read ; whose wages shall be paid either by the 
parents or masters of such children, or by the inhabitants in 
generall, by way of supplye, as the major parte of those who 
order the prudentials of the towne shall appointe ; provided, 
that those who send theire children, bee not oppressed by 
paying much more than they can have them taught for in 
other townes. And it is further ordered, that where any 
towne shall increase to the number of one hundred families 
or howsholders, they shall sett up a grammar schoole, the 



APPRENTICESfflP 153 

masters thereof being able to instruct youths so far as they 
may bee fitted for the University ; and if any town neglect 
the performance hereof above one yeare, then every such 
towne shall pay five pounds per annum to the next such 
schoole, till they shall perform this order." ^ 

Concerning this act of the General Court, James 
Russell Lowell has written : "It was in making 
education not only common to all, but in some sense 
compulsory on all, that the destiny of the free 
republics of America was practically settled.''^ It 
is true that two hundred sixty-seven years after the 
passage of the law we still find half a dozen States 
without compulsion, but we are marching on, and 
a few years more will make the vote unanimous in 
favor of compulsory education. It is also true that 
the laws we have are ineffective in many cases ; but 
we are improving rapidly. Each year sees some 
progress. In good time the laws will be perfected 
and public opinion will insist upon their better 
enforcement. 

(i) The School Census, — One of the indispensable 
conditions of a successful compulsory education 
law is an accurate enrollment of the children of school 
age. The school furnishes the names and addresses 

1 Records of the Massachusetts Colony^ Vol. 2, p. 203. 

2 New England Two Centuries Ago. 



154 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

of children who should be in school, the school 
register shows the names of those who are in school, 
and thus the compulsory bureau has the information 
needed to make school attendance universal. This 
is the theory. In practice there are many difficulties 
of administration which in America we have not yet 
overcome. For instance : — 

"In 1909 a permanent census bureau created in cities of 
the first class in New York revealed 518 children in the city 
of Rochester unlawfully out of school; 6318 in Buffalo; 
and 23,241 in New York City. Though the machinery of 
the compulsory attendance and child-labor laws had been in 
operation over 16 years and with much success, yet over 
30,000 children were unlawfully out of school." ^ 

An enumeration of children of school age is pro- 
vided for in many' States, but with what poor suc- 
cess may be seen from the following comment on the 
school census : — 

"In 1909 the authorities of the United States Census made 
a study o;f the school census taken during that year and com- 
pared the results with the actual enumeration of children 
made by the Federal agents during the same year. In 26 
States and Territories the number of the children reported 
in the school censuses was less than the number found by the 

^Laggards in Our Schools, Leonard P. Ayres, Charities Publication 
Committee, N. Y., 1909, p. 191, 



APPRENTICESHIP 155 

Federal agents. The local authorities failed to report more 
than a third of a million children of school age, the error 
in some cases being as high as 25 per cent. In 17 States the 
local agents reported a quarter of a million children more than 
there actually were, the error of overstatement running as 
high as 15 per cent." ^ 

Further improvement was made in the New York 
City Census in 191 4 by a consolidation of the Per- 
manent Census Bureau and the Department of Com- 
pulsory Education into a new Bureau of Compul- 
sory Education, School Census, and Child Welfare. 
The difficulty of keeping track of all the children in a 
city of the size of New York may be imagined when 
one considers the constant stream of foreign and na- 
tive immigration, coupled with the frequent changes 
of address on the part of citizens. The writer has 
single schools in which more than two thousand 
changes of registration occur in the course of a year. 
Several of his schools admit during September and 
October some eight hundred children and discharge 
three or four hundred on transfers. The record card 
of a certain boy recently inspected by me showed 
that the child had been in eight different schools in a 
single year. No wonder the legend has arisen that 

1 Bulletin No. 2, 1914, p. 13, U. S. Bureau of Education. 



156 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

some parents find it cheaper to move than pay rent! 
By a system recently inaugurated in New York 
every change of registration is reported to a central 
bureau, which thus has a record of every pupil 
discharged from a school for any reason. It is 
hoped by this means to prevent the loss of many 
children who have heretofore taken transfers and 
then failed to appear in any other school. It is, 
however, impossible to follow up successfully children 
who change addresses several times in a month. 
Nor is it possible to prevent the giving of false 
addresses for the purpose of eluding the attendance 
officer. 

(2) The Attendance Officer. — The school census 
and the school register show what children of school 
age are absent from school. The next step is to 
secure universal and regular attendance. ^^ The 
average effective school year in the United States 
is only 11 1.8 days out of an average of 156.8 days 
the schools are in session. Granting the time neces- 
sary for the average child to complete a grade is 
156.8 days, the child attending the average time of 
1 1 1.8 days would need 11.2 years in which to com- 
plete an eight-year course. In other words, the 
child would lose three years, which in most cases 



APPRENTICESHIP 



157 



would mean the elimination of that child before the 
eighth grade was reached. If i8o days are necessary 
to complete a grade, a child attending 111.8 days 
each year would be 12.9 years completing eight 
grades." ^ Poor attendance accounts for the fact 
that only about one third of the children in certain 
typical American cities complete the eighth grade 
before leaving the school.^ Definite information on 
this relation of absence to promotion is contained 
in the following table from the Report of the New 
York School Inquiry : — 

Attendance and Promotion^ 







Absent 
10 Da. 
OR Less 


Absent 

II TO 20 

Da. 


Absent 

21 to 30 

Da. 


Absent 

31 to 40 

Da. 


Absent 

41 OR 
MORE Da. 


Number (iA) 


1721S 


8708 


Soio 


3188 


8891 


Per Cent of Total Register 
Per Cent Promoted . . 
Per Cent not Promoted . 


40.02 
89.47 
10.53 


20.25 

85.75 
14.25 


11.65 
79.02 
20.98 


7.41 
71.01 
28.99 


20.67 

40.56 

59-44 





Non-attendance, so far as it is due to deHnquency, 
is more the fault of parents than of children. The 
number of truants is relatively small. Of 56,450 

1 W. S. Deffenbaugh, in U. S. Commissioner of Education's Bulletin 
No. 2, 1914, p. 17. 

2 See p. 62. Compare with European condition, p. 147. 

3 Report of Committee on School Inquiry, Board of Estimate, Vol. i, 
p. 566. 



158 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

cases of absence in St. Louis in 1911-1912 only 1709 
were truancy. Of 128,032 cases referred for inves- 
tigation to attendance officers in New York, 191 2- 
191 3, 18,097 were truancy. The '' net register '' of 
that year was 804, 237. The truancy cases were 2.2% 
of this register, and 14% of the absences investi- 
gated. Sixty- two per cent of the absences were 
legitimate, being due to illness, poverty, transfer, 
removal from city, work with employment certifi- 
cate, etc. The illegal absences, numbering 31,261, 
were due chiefly to parental neglect or parental 
inefficiency.'^ 

In the majority of the States the officer charged 
with the duty of dealing with delinquent parents 
and children in the matter of non-attendance is the 
truant officer, more properly called attendance 
officer. In some cases the sheriff or deputy sheriff 
shares the responsibility with the attendance officer. 
In Michigan, the police assist attendance officers, 
and in Idaho the probation officer is charged with 
the enforcement of the law.^ 

The effectiveness of an attendance officer depends 
chiefly on three things : — 

* Fifteenth Annual Report of the City Superintendent of Schools, 1913, 
p. 276. 

^Bulletin No. 2, 1914, pp. 28-77, U* S. Commissioner of Education.] 



APPRENTICESHIP 159 

{a) His own efficiency. 

(h) The promptness with which absences are 
reported to him. 

{c) The extent to which his measures for enforce- 
ment are backed by school authorities and courts. 

In rural districts the attendance officer is fre- 
quently employed at some gainful occupation as his 
regular work, while his services as an officer of the 
law are performed incidentally. Insufficient salaries 
are the chief cause of low-grade service. A good 
attendance officer is a man (or woman) of consider- 
able education, good character, pleasing dress and 
address, firm will, some knowledge of law, and self- 
possession sufficient to prosecute parents and chil- 
dren in a court. Such a person is worth from a 
thousand to two thousand dollars a year, according 
to length of service and ability. 

The information concerning non-attendance is 
supplied to the attendance officer by the school or 
by the census bureau. The effectiveness of enforce- 
ment depends, therefore, largely upon the promptness 
with which absences are reported. Some laws are 
so poor that no provision whatever is made for 
reporting absences. Some states require teachers 
to report once a month, some only once or twice a 



i6o HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

year. In New York City, teachers are required to 
send a post card to the parent for even one day's 
unexplained absence. After two cards have been 
sent without result, the case is given to an officer. 
Thousands of teachers visit pupils' homes to make 
personal inquiry as to the cause of absence. In this 
way they incidentally acquire a fund of information 
about home conditions which makes them more 
sympathetic teachers and frequently helps to remove 
the cause of non-attendance. 

The ultimate authority for the punishment of 
recalcitrant parents and children rests in the courts. 
There is a general complaint that the courts are 
inclined to be too lenient and thus to thwart the 
efforts of school authorities to enforce the compulsory 
laws. The following statistics concerning New York 
City in 1912-1913 speak for themselves : ^ — 

Parents summoned to Magistrates' Courts . 711 

Discharged 380 

Reprimanded 201 

Fined 130 

Amount of fines $404 

When it is recalled that only the most flagrant 
cases of defiance are taken to court these figures 

'^Twelfth Annual Report of the City Superintendent of Schools, p. 278. 



APPRENTICESHIP i6l 

indicate how discouraging is the endeavor to teach 
parents respect for the law. 

(3) The School Visitor. — Within recent years 
the " school visitor " or " visiting teacher '^ has been 
employed as an efficient means of adjusting the 
school to the home or the child to the school. One 
of the most important qualities of a good teacher is 
sympathy, — the ability to " rejoice with them that 
do rejoice, and weep with them that weep.'' That 
sort of sympathy is born of knowledge. In order 
really to enter into the Uves of the children one must 
know their home conditions. Such information 
can be gained most effectively by visiting the home. 
But the average teacher does not find time to make 
visits and does not regard such activities as among 
her legitimate duties. Each child therefore remains 
a sort of unknown quantity in the teacher's problem ; 
and we know that a problem in algebra with even 
two unknown quantities is apt to be difficult. Very 
many of the problem cases in school are the result 
of ignorance and consequent lack of sympathy on 
the part of the teacher. Teacher gets cross because 
Mary doesn't understand her ^' examples." The 
real trouble may be that Teacher doesn't understand 
Mary. The child may live in a cellar or in a single 



i62 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

room with six or eight other persons. How is Mary 
going to "do her sums " in such a home? Perhaps 
John is a problem in school. Examine his daily 
career and you will find that he has problems of his 
own. Every afternoon he falls asleep in his class. 
Teacher calls him lazy, scolds him, keeps him in after 
school, scores demerits against his record, sends 
him to the Principal for discipline. John gets up 
at two o'clock every morning and helps his father 
on the baker's wagon ; or he is out every night until 
eleven selling papers, shoestrings, or chewing gum. 
Every delinquent child is more sinned against than 
sinning. This I say even though he commit all the 
crimes in the juvenile calendar. His birth and his 
environment have made him what he is. Now, the 
visiting teacher is for John and Mary. Her duty 
is to put the school in possession of the home facts 
and the home in possession of the school's point of 
view. She is the official adjuster. In the writer's 
supervisory district two visiting teachers are em- 
ployed, both at private expense. The Board of 
Education of New York has thus far been able to 
secure funds for only five or six school visitors. 
On page 196 will be found a report of one of our 
visiting teachers which gives a pretty fair idea of 



APPRENTICESHIP 163 

the sort of work she is doing. The school to which 
she is attached has a register at present of 3716. 
It is located in a congested portion of The Bronx. 
This visitor is paid out of private funds contributed 
by friends of the school. 



CHAPTER IX 

CONCLUSION 

I. The Danger. — The American public is vaguely 
aware that something is needed to make our educa- 
tion more practical ; but very few of us know 
exactly what is wrong or what should be done. 
The average citizen depends upon the press for in- 
formation on pubhc affairs. In the matter of edu- 
cation editors are singularly uninformed or mis- 
informed. One rarely reads an editorial on schools 
that is not replete with error. As for news writers, 
their habitual lack* of accuracy and striving for sen- 
sational effect renders them absolutely incapable of 
telling the truth about education, even when they 
know it. In New York (with one or two excep- 
tions) the doings of the Board of Education seldom 
occupy more than a paragraph or two in the columns 
of even the most widely read papers. The matter 
reported is not an intelligent summary of the pro- 
ceedings, but usually some incidental item, like an 
attack on a public ofi&cial or the dismissal of a delin- 

164 



CONCLUSION 165 

quent teacher, magnified out of proportion, while 
the really important things are ignored. 

Even persons who pose as educators are often 
woefully ignorant of the actual state of affairs in 
education. On November 23, 191 2, a New York 
daily paper published an article from the pen of a 
certain Professor in Princeton University, from 
which the following is quoted : — 

"I believe our school system is feeble and foolish. We are 
not getting half the results we have a right to expect from our 
schools. With a reasonably efficient organization we should 
be able to get for half the cost more than all the advantages 
and less than all the disadvantages we now obtain from our 
schools. . . . The schools to-day are mostly occupied 
imparting stereotyped information and incidentally promot- 
ing democracy — democracy in ideas and ideals, in morals, 
and manners, in contagious diseases and even more con- 
tagious immorality. Bullying, . . . diphtheria, lying, scar- 
let fever, cheating in class and examination, whooping cough, 
profanity, measles, all-round cultivated incompetence, tuber- 
culosis, weakened eyes, . . . are some of the more objection- 
able of the miscellaneous evils disseminated, though not in- 
vented by our school system. 

"But our schools are open to a still severer indictment. 
They have no vital connection with the life of the community 
from which they draw their pupils and their funds. They 
fail to prepare pupils to do anything." 



i66 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

There is much more abuse of the same sort. This 
diatribe was pubHshed prominently on the editorial 
page, and was further emphasized by a commenda- 
tory editorial. As an instance of the fairness and 
honor of modern journaHsm, I may cite the fact 
that I wrote to this newspaper a signed reply to the 
Professor's article, which was never published. Be- 
cause the Editor had already committed himself to 
the side of the Professor, he refused to disturb his 
equanimity by permitting the publication of facts 
and arguments bearing on the other side of the case. 

II. A Common Error. — The case of the Pro- 
fessor is cited because, though he belongs to our 
profession, he illustrates an error common among 
uninformed laymen. There is a large element in 
the community, generally represented on the school 
board, which can see no use for culture studies. 
" The question of common-sense," says Lowell,^ 
"is always, ^ What is it good for?' — a question 
which would abolish the rose and be answered trium- 
phantly by the cabbage. The danger of the prosaic 
type of mind lies in the stolid sense of superiority 
which blinds it to everything ideal, to the use of 
anything that does not serve the practical purposes 

1 Essay on Chaucer. 



\ CONCLUSION 167 

o^ life.'^ The prosaic " man has no notion that two 
and two make ^vGy which is the problem the poet 
often has to solve." The fact that elementary 
schools have taught no vocational subjects in the 
past is no good reason why in future they should 
teach nothing but vocational subjects. All the 
children who can afford to take culture courses and 
are qualified for such work should be given the 
opportunity. The free passage from the kinder- 
garten to the university must not be abolished. 
But, on the other hand, the schools are to do a 
great deal more in the future than they have done 
in the past for the ninety-five per cent who never 
reach the university, for the ninety per cent who do 
not go through a high school, and for the sixty-six 
per cent who do not even graduate from the ele- 
mentary school. 

III. The Remedy. — Our school system is not 
perfect ; but neither is it as feeble and foolish as the 
Professor would have us believe. His assertion, 
without proof, that we should be able to get all the 
good we now have out of the public schools for half 
the cost, does not sound like the utterance of a man 
with the scientific habit of mind. That sort of 
exaggeration may arrest the attention of thought- 



i68 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

less readers and factless editors; but it certainly 
contributes nothing to the solution of the problem 
before us. Well-read educators know what the 
trouble is and know the remedy. The trouble is 
not the dissemination of measles, and the remedy is 
not muck-raking. We do not need a new curric- 
ulum for existing schools, although the curriculum 
needs revision from time to time to keep the school 
abreast of scientific discovery and responsive to 
economic and social changes. What we do need is 
a new system of schools to supplement the work of 
the present system and to serve as a connecting 
link between education and industry. There is no 
sense in berating our schools for not teaching voca- 
tions. They were never expected to do so. Sepa- 
rate schools are needed for special education; and 
as fast as possible these are being organized. Voca- 
tional education in Europe is not a part of the public 
school system, but is under the control of ministries 
of commerce, agriculture, industries, etc. The ele- 
mentary school can do little more than teach the 
tools of knowledge. It must always teach reading, 
and writing, and number, and geography, and his- 
tory. These subjects with music, drawing, and phys- 
ical training, are enough to occupy the first six or 



CONCLUSION 169 

eight years of the school. If European experience 
counts for anything, vocational subjects will be 
taken up by the pupil after the completion of his 
thirteenth or fourteenth year. Some pre -vocational 
instruction may be offered by the regular school; 
but actual vocational training for young people 
already employed, will be offered in separate day or 
evening schools. 

President Gompers, of the American Federation 
of Labor, in the following extract from a report of 
his, shows himself wiser than the Princeton Profes- 
sor : — 

"Our movement in advocating industrial education pro- 
tests most emphatically against the elimination from our 
public-school system of any line of learning now taught. 
Education, technically or industrially, must be supplementary 
to and in connection with our modern school system." 

rV. National Aid. — There was pending for 
several years in Congress a bill introduced by Sena- 
tor Carroll S. Page, of Vermont, which, if passed, 
would have provided national cooperation with the 
several states in encouraging instruction in agricul- 
ture, the trades, industries, and home economics in 
high schools. It also offered national grants for 
the teaching of these subjects in State Normal 



I70 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

Schools, and maintaining extension departments in 
State Colleges of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. 
The appropriations proposed by Senator Page began 
with $2,077,000 in 1 91 3 and by a progressive in- 
crease could have reached a total of $14,752,000 per 
annum in 192 1. 

A new bill is pending in Congress at present 
(known as " H. R. 7951 ") which proposes aid similar 
to that of the Page bill.^ As passed by the House 
and amended by the Senate it offers aid in the teach- 
ing of agriculture and home economics by maintain- 
ing extension departments in State Colleges of Agri- 
culture and Mechanic Arts. A significant phrase in 
the act is that the work is to be carried on " with- 
out discrimination as to race." It appropriates 
$1,090,000 the first year and by successive annual 
increases reaches a total of $4,690,000 in 1922. 
Thereafter the annual appropriation is $5,290,000. 
Each appropriation is conditioned on the contribu- 
tion of a like amount by the State for the same 
purpose. 

Summary, — The following resolutions, adopted 
by the National Association of Manufacturers, at a 
convention held in New York, on May 21, 1912, are 

1 See Appendix VI. 



CONCLUSION 171 

a fair statement in concise form of the problem of 
vocational education in the United States: — 

1. "Continuation Schools for that half of the children 
who leave school at fourteen years of age, and mostly in the 
fifth and sixth grades, these continuation schools to be liber- 
ally cultural and at the same time to be extremely practical 
and related as directly as possible to the occupations in which 
the several students are engaged. 

2. "The development of a modern apprenticeship system 
wherein by contract the respective and equal rights of em- 
ployer and employee are fully recognized, the entire trade is 
taught, together with such other subjects as are essential 
to good citizenship. 

3. "The development of secondary continuation or trade 
schools, by which the more efficient of the great army of boys 
and girls who will enter the continuation schools may progress 
from these lower continuation schools, as in some other coun- 
tries, to the foremost places in industry and commerce. 

4. "Compulsory education through adolescence, being 
until the seventeenth or eighteenth year, attendance being in 
the all-day school until the fourteenth year, and thereafter 
in either the all-day schools or in the continuation schools 
for not less than one-half day per week, without loss of wages 
for hours in school. 

5. "The strengthening of all truancy laws and the devel- 
opment of public sentiment in support thereof. 

6. "The training of teachers in thoroughgoing methods of 
industrial practice, including as part of such training extended 
experience in actual shop work. 

7. "The establishment of independent State and local 



172 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

boards of industrial education consisting of one-third each, 
professional educators, employers, and employees, thereby 
insuring as in the more successful European countries, the 
proper correlation of the schools and the industries. 

8. "The development of the vocational and creative de- 
sires of the concrete, or hand-minded children now in the 
grades, discouraged, anxious to quit, and often called back- 
ward, only because the education now tendered them is 
abstract and misfit. 

9. "The establishment of shop schools and part-time 
schools whenever practicable. 

10. " The establishment of departments or centres of vo- 
cational guidance so that the great majority of the children 
who now enter industry at fourteen with no direction, 85 % 
falling into the 'blind alley' occupations, may with the re- 
versal of these figures, as in some other countries, enter, under 
advice, intelligently and properly into the progressive and im- 
proving occupations.''^ 



CHAPTER X 

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND INVESTI- 
GATION 

1. What are the arguments in favor of universal 
popular education at public expense? 

2. Would it be desirable, if it were possible, to 
have all children receive the benefit of a secondary- 
education ? 

3. What is a good citizen? Show the relation of 
profitable and congenial employment to good citizen- 
ship. 

4. Show the relation of the " habit of success '* 
to physical and mental hygiene. 

5. What percentage of our exports are raw ma- 
terial or partially manufactured products ? 

6. Briefly sketch the industrial and economic 
revolution of the civilized world that has occurred 
within the last century. 

7. Sketch briefly, giving approximate dates, the 
beginnings of popular elementary schools under 
state control, in Germany, England, Scotland, and 
America. 

173 



174 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

8. Referring to the history of education among 
Western peoples, cite instances of three essentially 
different conceptions of the nature and aim of edu- 
cation, indicating the distinguishing characteristics 
and leading advocates of each. 

9. Which of the European nations has the best 
system of vocational education? Show by citing 
details of organization, teaching, and results the 
reason for your statement. 

10. " Next to moral education . . . industrial 
training is by general consent the greatest and most 
urgent problem confronting the American people." 
— G. Stanley Hall. 

Develop this theme, giving facts and arguments 

to sustain it. 

■ 

11. "The only right time for children to be 
found in the night schools is the daytime." 

Discuss this dictum in relation to the New York 
law requiring boys between the ages of fourteen and 
sixteen who have not completed the elementary 
school and are employed in daytime to attend even- 
ing school. 

12. Mention ^ve important respects in which 
pupils of the secondary school stage differ from 
those of the elementary school stage. Show the 
bearing of these differences on secondary teaching. 



TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND INVESTIGATION 175 

13. "It is due to a prejudice, inherited from 
antiquity, against these arts (i.e. the material or 
manual arts) that their great educational value has 
not been seen. This value is three-fold." — Thomas 
Davidson. 

(a) Discuss the view presented in the first sentence 
of the quotation. 

(b) What do you understand to be the threefold 
educational value of these arts? 

(c) State concisely reasons for and against the 
introduction of these arts into the elementary 
course of study. 

14. Should vocational education be a part of the 
elementary school or should it be supplementary to 
the elementary school? 

Give reasons, mentioning a European nation that 
makes it a part of the elementary school and another 
that makes it a supplement of elementary education. 

15. Explain somewhat in detail what is meant 
by " vocational guidance." 

16. "I think I am not stating the case too broadly 
when I say that the great improvement and the 
great change in our system of higher education which 
marks it off to-day in such a clear way from what it 
was before 1870 may be traced directly and imme- 



176 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

diately to the increased emphasis laid upon voca- 
tional training." — Edmund J. James. 

(a) Give the names of vocational subjects here 
referred to. 

(b) Show how their introduction has modified the 
college curriculum and affected entrance require- 
ments and attendance. 

17. *^ There are two roads to a broad culture — 
one by way of a course that is general from begin- 
ning to end, the other by a narrower, vocational 
course which, if pursued long enough, is bound to 
lead into paths covering the broad field. Dr. Ker- 
schensteiner of Munich, when in conference with the 
Illinois Educational Commission in Chicago, indi- 
cated that it was his belief that of the two roads 
the latter was the best. It is not in harmony with 
the curricula of our American schools, but it is in 
harmony with one of the fundamental laws of our 
educational psychology.'' — Charles A. Bennett. 

(a) Show what is meant by the first sentence. 

(b) Discuss, with illustrations, the last sentence. 

18. It has been pointed out that Latin, when it 
was first introduced into the modern curriculum, 
was a vocational study. Explain. Has Latin vo- 
cational value now? Discuss. 



TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND INVESTIGATION 177 

19. " It used to be that a boy wishing to learn a 
trade was bound out or apprenticed to a master for 
a term of years. He became a member of the 
master's household, lived under his master's eye, 
very much in the manner of an adopted son, and 
learned his trade under the master's direct super- 
vision and tutelage. This way of learning was pos- 
sible in the day of small industries when each manu- 
facturer or tradesman performed the full round of 
his trade's activities in the one shop and there was 
time for hand-work because machine-work did not 
exist. Now that method is no longer possible." — 
Lewis Gustafson. 

(a) Discuss the last sentence. 

(b) Sketch in outHne the provisions of a desirable 
state or federal law governing apprenticeships. 

20. To what extent and in what ways can day 
vocational education and liberal education be carried 
on together or in close connection? 

21. For what callings is vocational education 
under school conditions possible? 

22. What can be done for purpose of vocational 
education in the case of both boys and girls from 
fourteen to sixteen years of age? 

23. How far, in the successive stages of day voca- 



178 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

tional education in schools, shall emphasis be laid 
on productive work (with shop hours, shop clothing, 
and a marketable product), and how far on studies 
and practices (theoretical work) ? 

24. How far can the economy and effectiveness of 
vocational education be increased by cooperative 
arrangements for part-time work between industries 
and the school system? 

25. Discriminate the following terms as applied to 
education: (i) vocational, (2) industrial, (3) commer- 
cial, (4) manual training, (5) part-time, (6) inter- 
mediate school, (7) differentiated program, (8) continu- 
ation school, (9) improvement school, (10) technical high 
school, 

26. How are vocational teachers trained in Prus- 
sia? in Munich? in Baden? in Wurttemberg? in 
the United States? 

27. State the best way to select and train voca- 
tional teachers in the United States. 

28. Show the relation of an apprenticeship system 
to vocational education; also the relation of com- 
pulsory education laws to vocational education. 

29. " Is it wise for a State like New York with 
50 per cent of its school district having a valuation 
of less than $60,000 to ask these small communities 



TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND INVESTIGATION 179 

to develop continuation instruction when they can- 
not properly support their present education? " — 
Annual Report, Commissioner of Education, Albany, 
New York, 19 14. 

30. " What kind of school training will meet the 
permanent requirement of industry and the per- 
manent requirement of citizenship ? " — New York 
Commissioner of Education, op, ciL 



CHAPTER XI 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The following authorities are cited or quoted in the text 
of this volume : — 

1. Ayres, Leonard P., Laggards in Our Schools, Charities 
Publication Committee, New York, 1909. 

2. Bennett, Charles A., Editor Vocational Education j Vols. 
I and 2, The Manual Arts Press, Peoria, 111. 

3. CooLEY, Edwin G., Vocational Education in Europe, The 
Commercial Club of Chicago, 191 2. 

4. The Need of Vocational Schools in the United 

States, The Commercial Club of Chicago, 191 2. 

5. Cleveland, Annual Report of Schools, 1909. 

6. Commercial Club of Chicago, Proposed Law for Estab- 
lishing Vocational Schools for Illinois. 

7. Draper, Andrew S., Industrial and Trades Schools, N. Y. 
Education Department, Albany, 1908. 

8. Our Children, Our Schools, and Our Industries, 

Albany, 1908. 

9. GuLiCK, LuTHUR H., Mind and Work, Doubleday, 
Page & Co., 1908. 

10. Kerschensteiner, Dr. Georg, Three Lectures on Voca- 
tional Training, The Commercial Club of Chicago, 191 1. 

11. Kent, Ernest Beckwith, The Constructive Interests of 
Children, Teachers College Record, 1907. 

12. Lowell, James Russell, New England Two Centuries 
Ago. 

180 



BIBLIOGRAPHY i8i 

13. Maxwell, WiluiauB.., Fourteenth Annual Report, New 
York, 191 2. 

14. Fifteenth Annual Report, igi$. 

15. Motley, J. M., Apprenticeship in American Trade 
Unions, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1907. 

16. National Association of Manufacturers, Industrial 
Education, Document No. 28, 30 Church St., New York. 

17. National Education Association, Proceedings, 1910, 

P- 730- 

18. Report of the Committee on the Place of Industries 

in Public Education, 1910. 

19. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial 
Training, The Organization and Management of Trade 
Schools, 1908, New York. 

20. Bulletin No. 11, hy Edward Reimer. 

21. Bulletin No. ij. Part II, 19 11. 

22. Bulletin No. 15, 1911. 

23. Bulletin No. ig, 19 14. 

24. New York School Inquiry, Vol. i, 1913. 

25. Records of the Massachusetts Colony, Vol. 2. 

26. Ruskin, John, St. Mark's Rest, Merrill and Batzer, New 
York. 

27. ScHRiGLEY, John M., The Organization and Management 
of Trade Schools, National Society for the Promotion 
of Industrial Education, 1908. 

28. Schneider, Herman, in The Annals of the American 
Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 33, Phila- 
delphia. 

29. Snedden, David, in Educational Review, Vol. 44. 

30. Teachers College Record, Vol. 12, Columbia Univer- 
sity, 191 1 ; also Vol. 8, on Wurttemberg Vocational Schools. 



i82 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

31. U. S. Commissioner or Labor, 2jth Annual Report, In- 
dustrial Education, 1 9 1 1 . 

32. U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 4, igoy, 
Thorndike on Elimination. 

33. Report, 191 1, The Training of Vocational Teachers 

in Germany, by E. G. Cooley. 

34. Bulletin No. 20, 191 2, The Readjustment of a 

Rural High School to the Needs of a Community, by H. A. 
Brown. 

35- Annual Report, 1913, Vol. i. 

36. Bulletin No. ig, 1913. 

27. Bulletin No. 22, 1913, Bibliography of Industrial, 

Vocational, and Trade Education. Very valuable. Classi- 
fied and annotated titles to the number of 885. 

38. Bulletin No. 2, 1914. 

39. U. S. Senate, Document No. gj6, 191 2, Industrial Edu- 
cation, by Charles H. Winslow. 

40. No. 845, 191 2, Speech by Senator Carroll S. Page, 

on Vocational Education. 

41. Vocational Education, Vols, i and 2. 

42. Vocational Guidance, 25th Annual Report of the Com- 
missioner of Labor, 1910, Washington, D. C, pp. 411- 

497- 

43. Walsh, James J., Education: Bow Old the New, Ford- 
ham University Press, New York, 19 10. 

44. Ware, Fabian, Educational Foundations of Trade and 
Industry, D. Appleton & Co., 1901. 

45. Warner, Charles F., in The Annals of the American 
Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 33. 



CHAPTER XII 
APPENDIX I 

The New York Law relative to Vocational 
Instruction 

Article 22 of the Education Law of igio, as amended by Laws 
of igij, chapter 747 

Section 600. General industrial schools, trade schools and 
schools of agriculture, mechanic arts and homemaking, may 
be established in cities. The board of education of any city, 
and in a city not having a board of education the officer having 
the management and supervision of the pubHc school system, 
may estabhsh, acquire, conduct and maintain as a part of the 
pubUc school system of such city the following : — 

1. General industrial schools open to pupils who have com- 
pleted the elementary school course or who have attained the 
age of fourteen years, and 

2. Trade schools open to pupils who have attained the age 
of sixteen years and have completed either the elementary 
school course or a course in the above mentioned general 
industrial school or who have met such other requirements 
as the local school authorities may have prescribed ; and 

3. Schools of agriculture, mechanic arts and homemaking, 
open to pupils who have completed the elementary school 
course or who have attained the age of fourteen, or who have 
met such other requirements as the local school authorities 
may have prescribed ; and 

183 



i84 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

4. Part-time or continuation schools in which instruction 
shall be given in the trades and in industrial, agricultural and 
homemaking subjects, and which shall be open to pupils 
over fourteen 'years of age who are regularly and lawfully 
employed during a part of the day in any useful employment 
or service, which subjects shall be supplementary to the prac- 
tical work carried on in such employment or service. 

5. Evening vocational schools in which instruction shall be 
given in the trades and in industrial, agricultural, and home- 
making subjects, and which shall be open to pupils over six- 
teen years of age, who are regularly and lawfully employed 
during the day and which provide instruction in subjects 
related to the practical work carried on in such employment ; 
but such evening vocational schools providing instruction 
in homemaking shall be open to all women over sixteen years 
of age who are employed in any capacity during the day. 

The word " school," as used in this article, shall include 
any department or course of instruction established and main- 
tained in a public school for any of the purposes specified 
in this section. [As amended by Laws of 191 3, chapter 747.] 

Sec. 601. Such schools may be established in union free 
school districts. The board of education of any union free 
school district shall also establish, acquire and maintain such 
schools for like purposes whenever such schools shall be au- 
thorized by a district meeting. The trustee or board of 
trustees of a common school district may establish a school 
or a course in agriculture, mechanic arts, and homemaking, 
when authorized by a district meeting. [As amended hy 
Laws of 191 3, chapter 747.] 

Sec. 602. Appointment of an advisory board. The board 
of education in a city and the officer having the management 



APPENDIX I 185 

and supervision of the public school system in a city not 
having a board of education shall appoint an advisory board 
of five members representing the local trades, industries, and 
occupations. In the first instance two of such members 
shall be appointed for a term of one year and three of such 
members shall be appointed for a term of two years. There- 
after as the terms of such members shall expire the vacancies 
caused thereby shall be filled for a full term of two years. 
Any other vacancy occurring on such board shall be filled 
by the appointing power named in this section for the re- 
mainder of the unexpired term. 

Sec. 603. Authority of the board of education over such 
schools. The board of education in a city and the officer 
having the management and supervision of the public school 
system in a city not having a board of education and the 
board of education in a union free school district in which city 
or district a general industrial school, a trade school, a school 
of agriculture, mechanic arts and homemaking, or a part- 
time or continuation school, or an evening vocational school 
is established as provided in this article, is vested with the 
same power and authority over the management, super- 
vision and control of such school and the teachers or instruc- 
tors employed therein as such board or officer now has over 
the schools and teachers under their charge. Such boards 
of education or such officer shall also have full power and 
authority : 

1. To employ competent teachers or instructors. 

2. To provide proper courses of study. 

3. To purchase or acquire sites and grounds and to pur- 
chase, acquire, lease or construct and to repair suitable shops 
or buildings and to properly equip the same. 



i86 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

4. To purchase necessary machinery, tools, apparatus and 
supplies. [As amended by Laws of 1913, chapter 747.] 

Sec. 604. State aid for general industrial schools, trade 
schools, and schools of agriculture, mechanic arts, and home- 
making. 

1. The Commissioner of Education in the annual appor- 
tionment of the State school moneys shall apportion there- 
from to each city and union free school district for each gen- 
eral industrial school, trade school, part-time or continuation 
school or evening vocational school, maintained therein for 
thirty-six weeks during the school year and employing one 
teacher whose work is devoted exclusively to such school, 
and having an enrolment of at least fifteen pupils and main- 
taining an organization and a course of study, and conducted 
in a manner approved by him, a sum equal to two-thirds 
of the salary paid to such teacher, but not exceeding one 
thousand dollars. 

2. He shall also apportion in like manner to each city, 
union free school district, or common school district for each 
school of agriculture, mechanic arts and homemaking, main- 
tained therein for thirty-six weeks during the school year, 
and employing one teacher whose work is devoted exclusively 
to such school, and having an enrolment of at least fifteen 
pupils and maintaining an organization and course of study 
and conducted in a manner approved by him, a sum equal to 
two-thirds of the salary paid to such teacher. Such teacher 
may be employed for the entire year, and during the time 
that the said school is not open shall be engaged in performing 
such educational services as may be required by the board 
of education or trustees, under regulations adopted by the 
Commissioner of Education. Where a contract is made with 



APPENDIX I 187 

a teacher for the entire year and such teacher is employed for 
such period, as herein provided, the Commissioner of Educa- 
tion shall make an additional apportionment to such city or 
district of the sum of two hundred dollars. But the total 
amount apportioned in each year on account of such teacher 
shall not exceed one thousand dollars. 

3. The Commissioner of Education shall also make an 
additional apportionment to each city and union free school 
district for each additional teacher employed exclusively 
in the schools mentioned in the preceding subdivisions of this 
section for thirty-six weeks during the school year, a sum 
equal to one-third of the salary paid to each such additional 
teacher, but not exceeding one thousand dollars for each 
teacher. 

4. The Commissioner of Education, in his discretion, may 
apportion to a district or city maintaining such schools or 
employing such teachers for a shorter time than thirty-six 
weeks, or for a less time than a regular school day, an amount 
pro rata to the time such schools are maintained or such 
teachers are employed. This section shall not be construed 
to entitle manual training high schools or other secondary 
schools maintaining manual training departments, to an 
apportionment of funds herein provided for. 

Any person employed as teacher as provided herein may 
serve as principal of the school in which the said industrial 
or trade school or course, or school or course of agriculture, 
mechanic arts and homemaking, is maintained. [As amended 
by Laws of 191 3, chapter 747.] 

Sec. 605. Application of such moneys. All moneys appor- 
tioned by the Commissioner of Education for schools under 
this article shall be used exclusively for the payment of the 



1 88 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

salaries of teachers employed in such schools in the city or 
district to which such moneys are apportioned. 

Sec. 606. Annual estimate by board of education and ap- 
propriations by municipal and school districts. 

1. The board of education of each city or the officer having 
the management and supervision of the public school system 
in a city not having a board of education shall file with the 
common council of such city, within thirty days after the 
commencement of the fiscal year of such city, a written item- 
ized estimate of the expenditures necessary for the main- 
tenance of its general industrial schools, trade schools, schools 
of agriculture, mechanic arts and homemaking, part-time 
or continuation schools or evening vocational schools, and 
the estimated amount which the city will receive from the 
State school moneys applicable to the support of such schools. 
The common council shall give a public hearing to such per- 
sons as wish to be heard in reference thereto. The common 
council shall adopt such estimate and, after deducting there- 
from the amount of State moneys applicable to the support 
of such schools, shall include the balance in the annual tax 
budget of such city. Such amount shall be levied, assessed 
and raised by tax upon the real and personal property liable 
to taxation in the city at the time and in the manner that 
other taxes for school purposes are raised. The common 
council shall have power by a two-thirds vote to reduce or 
reject any item included in such estimate. 

2. The board of education in a union free school district 
which maintains a general industrial school, trade school, a 
school of agriculture, mechanic arts and homemaking, part- 
time or continuation schools or evening vocational schools, 
shall include in its estimate of expenses pursuant to the 



APPENDIX I 189 

provisions of sections 323 and 327 of this chapter the amount 
that will be required to maintain such schools after applying 
toward the maintenance thereof the amount apportioned 
therefor by the Commissioner of Education. Such amount 
shall thereafter be levied, assessed and raised by tax upon 
the taxable property of the district at the time and in the 
manner that other taxes for school purposes are raised in 
such district. [As amended by Laws of igij, chapter 747.] 

Sec. 607. Courses in schools of agriculture for training of 
teachers. The State schools of agriculture at St. Lawrence 
University, at Alfred University and at Morrisville may 
give courses for the training of teachers in agriculture, me- 
chanic arts, domestic science or homemaking, approved by 
the Commissioner of Education. Such schools shall be en- 
titled to an apportionment of money as provided in section 
604 of this chapter for schools established in union free school 
districts. Graduates from such approved courses may re- 
ceive licenses to teach agriculture, mechanic arts and home- 
making in the public schools of the State, subject to such 
rules and regulations as the Commissioner of Education 
may prescribe. 



igo HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



APPENDIX II 

FROM UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK, 
BULLETIN NO. 566, MAY i, 1914 

SUGGESTIVE TWO-YEAR COURSE FOR BOYS 



Seventh Year 




Eighth Year 




Periods 
Subject a week 
Applied mathematics 5 
Shop drawing 4 
English and spelling 5 
Industrial geography 4 
Elementary industrial 


Subject 

Applied mathematics 
Shop drawing 
Engh'sh and writing 
Industrial history 
Elementary industrial 


Periods 
a week 
5 
4 
5 
4 


science 
Citizenship and hygiene 


I 
I 


science 
Citizenship and hygiene 


I 
I 


Elements of 
Carpentry- 
Cabinet making 
Wood turning 
Patternmaking 
Molding 


12 


Sheet metal work 
Plumbing 
Electrical work 
Machine shopwork 


20 




40 




40 



SUGGESTIVE TWO-YEAR COURSE FOR GIRLS 



Seventh Year 




First Half 




Second Half 




Applied arithmetic 
English 

Industrial geography and 
textiles 


5 

5 

4 


Applied arithmetic 
English 

Industrial geography and 
textiles 


5 
S 

4 


Spelling and writing 
Home furnishing and 
decoration 


I 

2 


Spelling and writing 
Home furnishing and 
decoration 


I 
2 


Costume design 
Music 


2 

I 


Millinery design 
Music 


2 

I 


Physical training 
Citizenship and hygiene 
Household science 


I 
I 
2 


Physical training 
Citizenship and hygiene 
Household science 


I 
I 
2 


Plain sewing 
Cooking 


8 
_8 


Millinery 
Cooking 


8 
_8 



40 



40 





APPENDIX III 


191 




Eighth Year 






Periods 




Periods 


Subjects 


a week 


Subjects 


a week 


Applied arithmetic 
English 
History 

Spelling and writing 
Home furnishing and 
decoration 


5 
5 
4 
I 

2 


Bookkeeping 
Enghsh 
History 

SpeUing and writing 
Home furnishing and 
decoration 


5 
5 
4 

I 

2 


Costmne design 
Music 


2 

I 


Millinery design 
Music 


2 

I 


Physical training 
Home nursing 


I 
I 


Physical training 
Household economics 


I 
I 


Household science 


2 


Household science 


2 


Dressmaking 
Cooking 


8 
_8 


Millinery 
Cooking 


8 
_8 



40 



40 



APPENDIX III 



AN UNDEMOCRATIC PROPOSAL 
JOHN DEWEY 

Professor of Philosophy, Columbia University 

No question at present under discussion in education is 
so fraught with consequences for the future of democracy 
as the question of industrial education. Its right develop- 
ment will do more to make public education truly demo- 
cratic than any other one agency now under consideration. 
Its wrong treatment will as surely accentuate all undemocratic 
tendencies in our present situation, by fostering and strength- 
ening class divisions in school and out. It is better to suffer 
a while longer from the ills of our present lack of system till 



192 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

the truly democratic lines of advance become apparent, 
rather than separate industrial education sharply from gen- 
eral education, and thereby use it to mark off to the interests 
of employers a separate class of laborers. 

These general considerations have a particular application 
to the scheme of industrial education which has been proposed 
for adoption by the next legislature of the State of Illinois — 
one of the leading industrial states of the Union, and con- 
taining its second largest city. This scheme proposes a 
separate State Commission of Vocational Education, wher- 
ever the community may wish to develop any form of indus- 
trial education. In other words, the entire school system of 
the state as a whole and of such communities of the state 
as may desire to do something definite in the direction of in- 
dustrial education is split into two for the education of all 
above fourteen years of age. Since whatever a state like 
Illinois may do in such a matter is sure to have influence in 
other states in this formative period, educators all over the 
Country should be argused to help ward off what, without 
exaggeration, may be termed the greatest evil now threatening 
the interests of democracy in education. 

The statement of the scheme ought to be enough to con- 
demn it. The least reflection shows fundamentally bad fea- 
tures associated with it. First, it divides and dupHcates the 
administrative educational machinery. How many com- 
munities have such an excess of public interest in education 
that they can afford to cut it into two parts ? How many 
have such a surplusage of money and other resources that 
they can afford to maintain a double system of schools, with 
the waste of funds and the friction therein involved ? Second, 
the scheme tends to paralyze one of the most vital move- 



APPENDIX III 193 

ments now operating for the improvement of existing general 
education. The old time general, academic education is 
beginning to be vitalized by the introduction of manual, in- 
dustrial and social activities ; it is beginning to recognize its 
responsibility to train all the youth for useful citizenship, 
including a calling in which each may render useful service to 
society and make an honest and decent living. Everywhere 
the existing school system is beginning to be alive to the need 
of supplementary agencies to help it fulfill this purpose, and 
is taking tentative but positive and continuous steps toward 
it. The City of Chicago in this same State of Illinois prob- 
ably ranks behind no other city of the country in the extent 
and wisdom of the steps already taken, steps which will of 
necessity be followed by others just as fast as those already 
taken demonstrate their efl&ciency. 

These two movements within the established American 
public school system, the proposed scheme, if adopted, will 
surely arrest. General education will be left with all its aca- 
demic vices and its remoteness from the urgent realities of con- 
temporary life untouched, and with the chief forces working 
for reform removed. Increasing recognition of its public 
and social responsibilities will be blasted. It is inconceivable 
that those who have loved and served our American common 
school system will, whatever the defects of this system, stand 
idly by and see such a blow aimed at it. Were anything 
needed to increase the force of the blow, it is the fact that the 
bill provides that all funds for industrial education raised by 
the local community be duplicated by the state, although the 
funds contributed by the state for general school purposes 
are hardly more than five per cent of the amount raised by 
local taxation. 
o 



194 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

Thirdly, the segregation will work disastrously for the true 
interests of the pupils who attend the so-called vocation 
schools. Ex-Superintendent Cooley of Chicago, who is un- 
derstood to be responsible for the proposed bill in its present 
form, has written a valuable report on "Vocational Education 
in Europe." He quite rightly holds in high esteem the work 
and opinions of Superintendent Kerschensteiner of Munich. 
It is noteworthy that this leading European authority insists 
upon all technical and trade work being taught in its general 
scientific and social bearings. Although working in a country 
definitely based on class distinctions (and where naturally 
the schools are based on class lines), the one thing Superin- 
tendent Kerschensteiner has stood for has been that industrial 
training shall be primarily not for the sake of industries, but 
for the sake of citizenship, and that it be conducted therefore 
on a purely educational basis and not in behalf of interested 
manufacturers. Mr. Cooley's own report summarizes Mr. 
Kerschensteiner's views as follows : "If the boy is to become 
an efficient workman he jnust comprehend his work in all 0} its 
relations to science, to art, and to society in general, ... The 
young workman who understands his trade in its scientific 
relations, its historical, economic and social hearings, will take 
a higher view of his trade, of his powers and duties as a citi- 
zen, and as a member of society." 

Whatever may be the views of manufacturers anxious to 
secure the aid of the state in providing them with a somewhat 
better grade of laborers for them to exploit, the quotations 
state the point of view which is self-evident to those who ap- 
proach the matter of industrial education from the side of 
education, and of a progressive society. It is truly extraordi- 
nary that just at a time when even partisan politics are taking 



APPENDIX III 195 

a definitely progressive turn, such a reactionary measure as 
the institution of trade and commercial schools under separate 
auspices should be proposed. It is not necessary to argue 
concerning the personal motives of the bankers and manufac- 
turers who have been drawn into the support of the measure. 
Doubtless many of them have the most public spirited of in- 
tentions. But no one experienced in education can doubt 
what would be the actual effect of a system of schools con- 
ducted wholly separate from the regular public schools, with 
a totally different curriculum, and with teachers and pupils 
responsible to a totally independent and separate school ad- 
ministration. Whatever were the original motives and in- 
tentions, such schools would not and could not give their 
pupil a knowledge of industry or any particular occupation 
in relation to "science, art and society in general." To at- 
tempt this would involve duplicating existing schools, in ad- 
dition to providing proper industrial training. And it is 
self-evident that the economical and effective way to accom- 
plish this move is to expand and supplement the present school 
system. Not being able to effect this complete duplication, 
these new schools would simply aim at increased efficiency 
in certain narrow lines. Those who believe in the continued 
separate existence of what they are pleased to call the 
"lower classes" or the "laboring classes" would naturally 
rejoice to have schools in which these "classes" would be 
segregated. And some employers of labor would doubtless 
rejoice to have schools supported by public taxation supply 
them with additional food for their mills. All others should 
be united against every proposition, in whatever form ad- 
vanced, to separate training of employees from training for 
citizenship, training of intelligence and character from train- 



196 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

ing for narrow industrial efficiency. That the evil forces at 
work are not local is seen in the attempt to get the recent 
national convention on industrial education in Philadelphia 
to commit itself in favor of the Illinois scheme. 



APPENDIX IV 

MONTHLY REPORT OF SCHOOL VISITOR 

Public School No. 4, The Bronx 

April, 19 14 

I. Number of new cases received in April .... 65 
Number of unvisited cases left over from previous 

month 15 

Total number of new cases 80 

Number of active cases, old, during month ... 15 

Total number of cases for April 95 

Total number of families visited - 65 

Number of families visited twice 4 

Number of families visited three times .... 3 

Number of families visited four times i 

Total number of visits made 78 

Number of cases dropped (removals from district) 4 
II. Classification by causes : 

a. Poor attendance 27 

h. Poor scholarship (reason not apparent) ... 10 

c. Unsatisfactory conduct at school or in streets . 4 

d. Evidence in classroom of poor home conditions i 

e. Repeated lateness i 



APPENDIX IV 197 

/. Poor health conditions 

Eyes 3 

Adenoids i 

Paralysis i 

Teeth 2 

General health 2 9 

g. Special cases 3 

h. Number of visits made to mothers in connection 

with preventive work (Monday night club) £0 
Total 65 

III. Constructive or preventive agencies (referred to or 

evidence of) : 

Mothers' Club of P. S. No. 4 3 

New York Child Labor Committee 2 

Board of Health 3 

Grace Church Chapel 2 

Bronx House Clubs 2 

Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children i 

Bronx Hospital Dispensary i 

United Hebrew Charities of The Bronx .... 2 
Bronx House Club Leaders' Organization 
Association of Neighborhood Workers 
Tenement House Department 
Owners of tenement houses 
Owners of moving picture theaters. 

IV. Comments : 

I. The dulling effect of the home drudgery of the for- 
eign mother was mentioned in our report of last 
month. Time and again we have come across 
mothers who might be willing to help in school 
problems affecting their children, but who seemed 



198 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

to be dulled for the lack of recreation and there- 
fore unable to help us. In an attempt to meet 
this situation a mothers' club was organized to 
meet at the Model Flat on Monday nights. 

2. The frequent absence from school of i A children 

appeared as a problem this month. We have had 
more cases of absence from this group than from 
any other. No doubt, the inclement weather has 
a good deal to do with it, but after visiting the 
parents it would appear that a great many parents 
esteem too lightly the value of proper school at- 
tendance for the first term of their children's life 
at school. This situation is probably of more than 
local interest. 

Recommended: That this question be taken up at 
the next meeting of the Parents' Association or 
the Mothers' Club; also that similar cooperation 
be invited from city organizations such as the Child 
Welfare League. 

Recommended : That a leaflet be prepared and given 
to parents when they first bring their child to 
school. In this leaflet the importance of starting 
the child in the right way should be pointed out. 

3. Especial attention was paid by visitor to the condi- 

tion of the tenements as she found them on her 
visits. Conditions are particularly bad on Third 
Avenue where the houses are old, the halls dark, 
and the rooms dark and made noisy by the ele- 
vated trains. The Tenement House Department, 
Board of Health, and tenement house owners were 
communicated with, to the end that better lights 



APPENDIX IV 199 

were placed in the halls, refuse was removed from 
halls, and the halls put into better condition. 
4. Three moving picture theaters were found to be admit- 
ting children without guardian and under sixteen 
in defiance of the law. They were warned. Also 
certain candy stores in the neighborhood used as 
hangouts for children during school hours were 
warned. This will be followed up in the case of 
the theaters. 
Three typical cases : 

Case 89 : Case of continued truancy. Yetta is a girl 
of fifteen. Upon investigation it was found that 
Yetta's mother died a year ago in Russia. Yetta's 
married sister, who lives in this city, sent for her 
with the intention of giving her a good education 
and taking good care of her. The sister's husband, 
a car conductor, pretty soon discovered that his 
earnings were not sufficient to enable him to keep 
Yetta at school, and he wanted Yetta to go to work. 
Yetta was not ready for her employment certificate. 
Consequently they kept her at home to enable her 
married sister to go to work. They explained to the 
school authorities that Yetta must begin to earn or 
they would have her deported. 

The case was immediately referred to the U. H. C. 
Yetta was placed in a special class and we expect 
her to be ready for her working papers by June. 
Her sister, after consultation, saw things in a reason- 
able light and she was persuaded to cooperate. 

Case No. 105 : Two children of the same family were 
reported by their teachers as deficient in their work, 



200 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

due to physical and home conditions. An examina- 
tion showed malnutrition. The home was visited. 
We found the mother was an U. H. C. pensioner, 
receiving three dollars a week for food, a bottle of 
milk a day, coal in cold weather and her rent, ap- 
parently a very reasonable allowance. We found, 
however, that she was buying her food at the delica- 
tessen store instead of cooking it herself. This was 
not only not healthful but decidedly more expensive. 
A committee of the Mothers' Club visited her re- 
peatedly and tried to persuade her to do her own 
cooking. In cooperation with our school nurse 
we showed her how to manage her allowance rea- 
sonably well by judicious use, but she absolutely re- 
fused to cook. The children showed the results of 
her neglect. After a conference with the U. H. C. 
representatives they suggested that they would be 
willing to increase the allowance, providing the 
mother would report every Monday night at the 
Housekeeping Centre of the. Bronx House to be in- 
structed in ways to cook inexpensive foods, such as 
farina, potatoes, beans, soups, etc., and then to cook 
them at home. The mother has agreed and we are 
watching the new arrangement with interest. 
Case No. 90 came from a Brooklyn school with a DD 
record (the lowest rating in conduct and work). 
The clerk as usual in such cases sent his name 
to the Committee on Children's Interests, which 
followed him up and tried to keep him out 
of trouble. After three weeks in the school he 
suddenly burst out one morning in a spell of 



APPENDIX IV 201 

impudence and shrieking disorder. The mother, 
who had been used to her son's troubles at school, 
was antagonistic, and the case had all the earmarks 
of a hardened discipline case with very discouraging 
home surroundings. The boy was put back to a 
lower grade ; and the case was put in the hands of 
the school visitor. After friendly relations were 
established between the school visitor and the boy, 
a compact was formed between them. He prom- 
ised to make the effort of his life, and now after 
almost a month he has been placed in his proper 
class again and is living up to the terms of the com- 
pact faithfully. 
VI. Conferences : 

Visitor had conferences during the month at the 
Public Education Association, Bronx House and 
with the Mothers' Club of P. S. 4. 

A conference was held at the Bronx office of the United 
Hebrew Charities, Mr. Henry J. Eckstein, presid- 
ing. Mr. Eckstein is also a member of the Board 
of Directors of Bronx House. Representing the 
school were Mr. Hirsdansky (also on the Board 
of Directors of Bronx House), Miss Lambert and 
Miss Bildersee, Assistants to Principal, Miss Feit- 
zinger, school nurse, and Miss Manheim, visiting 
teacher. Such cases as the school authorities 
knew to be U. H. C. cases were gone over in detail 
and the method of treatment discussed. A de- 
tailed report of the conference is hardly called for 
here, excepting that it shows the way for coopera- 
tion with other agencies. We wish to point out 



202 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

that to our knowledge the U. H. C. has hereby 
shown a view of cooperation which has, so far as 
we know, never been shown by any similar organi- 
zation in the city. 

Respectfully submitted, 

Viola Manheim, 

Visiting Teacher. 

Simon Hirsdansky, 

Principal, 



APPENDIX V 

THE MURRAY HILL PRE-VOCATIONAL 
PUBLIC SCHOOL FOR BOYS, NEW YORK 

9 Purpose 

The school is intended for young boys who wish to pursue 
a practical course of study to fit them for positions in the 
trades. The pupil will be given an opportunity to discover 
what branch of trade work he is best fitted to undertake. He 
will be permitted to select four different trades, from four dis- 
tinct groups, occupying himself for about ten weeks with the 
practice of each trade. The results of his work in these trade 
subjects will be compared, and he will be required to pursue 
the one in which he has shown greatest proficiency. Should 
he show exceptional proficiency in the first trade chosen, he 
will be permitted to confine his work to that trade. 







APPENDIX VI 


203 






TRADE GROUPS 




I 


II 


III IV 


V 


Woodwork 


Metal 
Work 


Electrical 
Work 


Draughting 


Advertising 


I. Joinery. 


Plumbing 


I. Electric 


I. Mechanical Drawing. 


I. Sign Paint- 




and Gas 


Wiring 


a) Freeh'd Sketching 


ing. 




Fitting. 


and Installa- 


(working drawings). 




2. Cabinet Mak- 




tion. 


b) Finished Working 


2. Display and 


ing and 






Drawings. 


Show Cards. 


Finishing. 




2. Instrument 


c) Elementary 




3. House- 




Making. 


Perspective. 




Carpentry. I 




3. Electric 

Signs. 

4. Electro- 

plating. 


2. Architectural Drawing. 

3. Making and Reading 

Blue Prints. 





Note : Courses in Machine Shop Practice, Printing, Bookbinding, etc., will be offered 
as soon as the equipment has been installed. 



APPENDIX VI 



SIXTY-THIRD CONGRESS, SECOND 

SESSION 

H. R. 7951 

IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES 

February 12, 1914 
Ordered to be printed with the amendments of the Senate. 

An Act 

To provide for cooperative agricultural extension work be- 
tween the agricultural colleges in the several States 
receiving the benefits of an Act of Congress approved 
July second, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, and of 
Acts supplementary thereto, and the United States 
Department of Agriculture. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives 
of the United States of America in Congress assembled, 



204 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

That in order to aid in diffusing among the people of the 
United States useful and practical information on subjects 
relating to agriculture and home economics, and to encour- 
age the application of the same, there may be inaugurated 
in connection with the college or colleges in each State now 
receiving, or which may hereafter receive, the benefits of 
the Act of Congress approved July second, eighteen hun- 
dred and sixty- two, entitled "An Act donating public lands 
to the several States and Territories which may provide 
colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic 
arts " (Twelfth Statutes at Large, page five hundred and 
three), and of the Act of Congress approved August thir- 
tieth, eighteen hundred and ninety (Twenty-sixth Statutes 
at Large, page four hundred and seventeen and chapter 
eight hundred and forty-one), agricultural extension work 
which shall be carried on in cooperation with the United 
States Department of Agriculture: Provided, That in any 
State in which two or more such colleges have been or here- 
after may be established the appropriations hereinafter made 
to such State shall be administered by such college or colleges 
as the governor of such State and the Secretary of Agricul- 
ture may jointly from time to time direct : Provided further, 
That, pending the inauguration and development of the co- 
operative extension work herein authorized, nothing in this 
Act shall be construed to discontinue either the farm manage- 
ment work or the farmers' cooperative demonstration work as 
now conducted by the Bureau of Plant Industry of the De- 
partment of Agriculture. 

I Sec. 2. That cooperative agricultural extension work 
shall consist of the giving of instruction and practical demon- 
strations in agriculture and home economics to persons not 



APPENDIX VI 205 

attending or resident in said colleges in the several com- 
munities, and imparting to such persons information on said 
subjects through field demonstrations, publications, and 
otherwise; and this work shall be carried on without dis- 
crimination as to race in such manner as may be mutually 
agreed upon by the Secretary of Agriculture and the State 
agricultural college or colleges receiving the benefits of this 
Act. 

Sec. 3. That for the purpose of paying the expenses 
of said cooperative agricultural extension work and the 
necessary printing and distributing of information in con- 
nection with the same, there is permanently appropriated, 
out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, 
the sum of $490,000 for each year, $10,000 of which shall 
be paid annually, in the manner hereinafter provided, to 
each State which shall by action of its legislature assent 
to the provisions of this Act : Provided, That payment of 
such installments of the appropriation hereinbefore made as 
shall become due to any State before the adjournment of the 
regular session of the legislature meeting next after the pas- 
sage of this Act may, in the absence of prior legislative assent, 
be made upon the assent of the governor thereof, duly certified 
to the Secretary of the Treasury : Provided further. That there 
is also appropriated an additional sum of $600,000 for the 
fiscal year following that in which the foregoing appropria- 
tion first becomes available, and for each year thereafter for 
seven years a sum exceeding by $600,000 the sum appro- 
priated for each preceding year, and for each year thereafter 
there is permanently appropriated for each year the sum of 
$4,800,000 in addition to the sum of $490,000 hereinbefore 
provided: Provided further. That before the funds herein 



2o6 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

appropriated shall become available to any college for any- 
fiscal year plans for the work to be carried on under this 
Act shall be submitted by the proper officials of each college 
and approved by the Secretary of Agriculture. Such 
additional sums shall be used only for the purposes herein- 
before stated, and shall be allotted annually to each State 
by the Secretary of Agriculture and paid in the manner 
hereinbefore provided, in the proportion which the rural pop- 
ulation of each State bears to the total rural population of all 
the States as determined by the next preceding Federal 
census : Provided further, That no payment out of the addi- 
tional appropriations herein provided shall be made in any 
year to any State until an equal sum has been appropriated 
for that year by the legislature of such State, or provided 
by State, county, college, local authority, or individual 
contributions, for the maintenance of the cooperative agri- 
cultural extension work provided for in this Act. 

Sec. 4. That the sums hereby appropriated for exten- 
sion work shall be paid in equal semiannual payments on the 
first day of January and July of each year by the Secretary 
of the Treasury upon the warrant of the Secretary of Agri- 
culture, out of the Treasury of the United States, to the 
treasurer or other ofiicer of the State duly authorized by the 
laws of the State to receive the same; and such officer shall 
be required to report to the Secretary of Agriculture, on or 
before the first day of September of each year, a detailed state- 
ment of the amount so received during the previous fiscal 
year, and of its disbursement, on forms prescribed by the 
Secretary of Agriculture. 

Sec. 5. That if any portion of the moneys received 
by the designated officer of any State for the support and 



APPENDIX VI 207 

maintenance of cooperative agricultural extension work, as 
provided in this Act, shall by any action or contingency be 
diminished or lost, or be misapplied, it shall be replaced by 
said State to which it belongs, and until so replaced no 
subsequent appropriation shall be apportioned or paid to 
said State, and no portion of said moneys shall be applied, 
directly or indirectly, to the purchase, erection, preservation, 
or repair of any building or buildings, or the purchase or 
rental of land, or in college-course teaching, lectures in col- 
leges, promoting agricultural trains, or any other purpose 
not specified in this Act, and not more than five per centum 
of each annual appropriation shall be applied to the printing 
and distribution of publications. It shall be the duty of 
each of said colleges annually, on or before the first day of 
January, to make to the governor of the State in which it 
is located a full and detailed report of its operations in the 
direction of extension work as defined in this Act, including 
a detailed statement of receipts and expenditures from all 
sources for this purpose, a copy of which report shall be sent 
to the Secretary of Agriculture and to the Secretary of the 
Treasury of the United States. 

Sec. 6. That on or before the first day of July in each 
year after the passage of this Act the Secretary of Agri- 
culture shall ascertain and certify to the Secretary of the 
Treasury as to each State whether it is entitled to receive its 
share of the annual appropriation for cooperative agricultural 
extension work under this Act, and the amount which it 
is entitled to receive. If the Secretary of Agriculture 
shall withhold a certificate from any State of its appropria- 
tion, the facts and reasons therefor shall be reported to the 
President, and the amount involved shall be kept separate in 



2o8 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

the Treasury until the expiration of the Congress next suc- 
ceeding a session of the legislature of any State from which 
a certificate has been withheld, in order that the State may, 
if it should so desire, appeal to Congress from the determi- 
nation of the Secretary of Agriculture. If the next Congress 
shall not direct such sum to be paid, it shall be covered into 
the Treasury. 

Sec. 7. That the Secretary of Agriculture shall make 
an annual report to Congress of the receipts, expenditures, 
and results of the cooperative agricultural extension work in 
all of the States receiving the benefits of this Act, and also 
whether the appropriation of any State has been withheld; 
and if so, the reasons therefor. 

Sec. 8. That the word "State" wherever the same occurs 
herein shall be held to apply to and include any organized 
Territory of the United States which is now included under 
or is now receiving the benefit of the Act of Congress approved 
July second, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, entitled "An 
Act donating public lands to the several States and Terri- 
tories which may provide colleges for the benefit of agri- 
culture and the mechanic arts" (Twelfth Statutes at Large, 
page five hundred and three), and of the Act of Congress 
approved August thirtieth, eighteen hundred and ninety, 
being chapter eight hundred and forty-one (Twenty-sixth 
Statutes at Large, page four hundred and seventeen). 

Sec. 9. That Congress may at any time alter, amend, 
or repeal any or all of the provisions of this Act. 

Passed the House of Representatives January 19, 19 14. 

Attest : South Trimble, Clerk. 

Passed the Senate February 7, 19 14, with amendments. 

Attest: James M. Baker, Secretary. 



APPENDIX VII 209 

APPENDIX VII 

THE WISCONSIN APPRENTICE LAW OF 
1911 ^ 

Section 2377. Every contract or agreement entered into 
between a minor and employer by which the minor is to learn 
a trade shall be known as an indenture, and shall comply with 
the provisions of sections 2378 to 2386, inclusive, of the 
statutes. Every minor entering into such a contract shall 
be known as an apprentice. 

Sec. 2378. Any minor may, by the execution of an inden- 
ture, bind himself as hereinafter provided, and such indenture 
may provide that the length of the term of the apprentice 
shall depend on the degree of the efficiency reached in the 
work assigned, but no indenture shall be made for less than 
one year, and if the minor is less than eighteen years of age 
the indenture shall in no case be for a period of less than two 
years. 

Sec. 2379. Any person or persons apprenticing a minor 
or forming any contractual relation in the nature of an ap- 
prenticeship without complying with the provisions of sec- 
tions 2377 to 2387, inclusive, of the statutes, shall, upon con- 
viction thereof, be punished by a fine of not less than fifty 
nor more than one hundred dollars. 

Sec. 2380. It shall be the duty of the commissioner of 
labor, the factory inspector, or assistant factory inspectors 
to enforce the provisions of this act and to prosecute viola- 

^Laws of Wisconsin relating to employment of women and children, 
industrial education and truancy. Wisconsin State Bd. of Indus. Educ, 
Bulletin No. i, pp. 24-26. 
p 



210 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

tions of the same before any court of competent jurisdiction 
in this State. 

Sec. 2381. Every indenture shall be signed: 

(i) By the minor. 

(2) By the father; and if the father be dead or legally 
incapable of giving consent, or has abandoned his family, 
then 

(3) By the mother ; and if both the father and the mother 
be dead or legally incapable of giving consent, then 

(4) By the guardian of the minor, if any. 

(5) If there be no parent or guardian with authority to 
sign, then by two justices of the peace of the county of resi- 
dence of the minor. 

(6) By the employer. 

Sec. 2382. Every indenture shall contain :^ 

(i) The names of the parties. 

(2) The date of the birth of the minor. 
^ (3) A statement of the trade the minor is to be taught, 
and the time at which the apprenticeship shall begin and end. 

(4) An agreement stating the number of hours to be spent 
in work, and the number of hours to be spent in instruction. 
The total of such number of hours shall not exceed fifty-five 
in any one week. 

(5) An agreement that the whole trade, as carried on by 
the employer, shall be taught, and an agreement as to the 
time to be spent at each process or machine. 

(6) An agreement between the employer and the appren- 
tice that not less than five hours per week of the aforemen- 
tioned fifty-five hours per week shall be devoted to in- 
struction. Such instruction shall include — 

(a) Two hours a week instruction in English, in citizenship, 



APPENDIX VII 211 

business practice, physiology, hygiene, and the use of safety 
devices. 

(b) Such other branches as may be approved by the State 
board of industrial education. 

(7) A statement of the compensation to be paid the appren- 
tice. 

Sec. 2383. The instruction specified in section 2382 may 
be given in a public school, or in such other manner as may be 
approved by the local board of industrial education ; and if 
there be no local board, subject to the approval of the State 
board of industrial education. Attendance at the public 
school, if any, shall be certified to by the teachers in charge 
of the courses, and failure to attend shall subject the appren- 
tice to the penalty of a loss of compensation for three hours 
for every hour he shall be absent without good cause. It 
shall be the duty of the school olficials to cooperate for the 
enforcement of this law. 

Sec. 2384. It shall be lawful to include in the indenture 
or agreement an article stipulating that during such period 
of the year as the public schools shall not be in session the em- 
ployer and the apprentice may be released from those portions 
of the indenture which affect the instruction to be given. 

Sec. 2385. If either party to an indenture shall fail to 
perform any of the stipulations, he shall forfeit not less than 
ten nor more than fifty dollars on complaint, the collection of 
which may be made by the commissioner of labor, factory 
inspector, or assistant factory inspectors in any court of 
competent jurisdiction in this State. Any court of com- 
petent jurisdiction may, in its discretion, also annul the 
indenture. Nothing herein prescribed shall deprive the em- 
ployer of the right to dismiss any apprentice who has will- 



212 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

fully violated the rules and regulations applying to all 
workmen. 

Sec. 2386. The employer shall give a bonus of not less 
than fifty dollars to the apprentice on the expiration of the 
term of the indenture, and also a certificate stating the term 
of the indenture. 

Sec. 2387. A certified copy of every indenture by which 
any minor may be apprenticed shall be filed by the employer 
with the State commissioner of labor. 

This apprentice law, the most advanced in the United 
States, is in several respects very like the German national 
law, described in chapter 7. It is to be studied in connec- 
tion with the Wisconsin compulsory improvement school at- 
tendance law of 191 1, which is here given : 

Continuation and Evening Schools ^ 

(Section 1728C-1) i. Whenever any evening school, 
continuation classes, industrial school, or commercial school 
shall be established in any town, village, or city in this State 
for minors between the ages of fourteen and sixteen working 
under permit as now provided by law, every such child re- 
siding within any town, village, or city in which any such 
school is established shall attend such school not less than five 
hours per week for six months in each year until such child 
becomes sixteen years of age, and every employer shall allow 
all minor employees over fourteen and under sixteen years of 
age a reduction in hours of work of not less than the number 
of hours the minor ... is by this section required to attend 
school. 

^ Laws of Wisconsin relating to employment of women and children 
industrial education and truancy. Wisconsin State Bd. of Indus. Educ. 
Bulletin No. i, p. 10. 



APPENDIX VIII 213 

APPENDIX VIII 

A GERMAN APPRENTICE CONTRACT ^ 

The following apprentice contract is executed between the 
firm of Friedrich Krupp, share company in Essen on the Ruhr, 
and (apprentice's name), born at (place of birth), to (name 
of parents), accompanied by his (parent or guardian, and 
name), as his legal representative. 

Section i. The firm accepts (apprentice's name) as ap- 
prentice for their cast-steel factory and obligates themselves 
to have him trained as a (trade or branch in which appren- 
ticed) under the direction of a suitable representative. The 
apprentice is thrown under the fatherly authority of the rep- 
resentative. 

Sec. 2. The apprentice is obligated to obedience and 
truth, to industry and proper conduct. 

He must regularly attend, under the direction of the firm, 
an improvement school, and present the certificate there ob- 
tained, immediately on its receipt, to the official set over him. 

Sec. 3. The apprentice is responsible for his support 
and for all other things necessary, with the exception of the 
tools necessary to his work. 

He shall receive from the day of his entrance on apprentice- 
ship pay for each working day, which shall depend on his 
conduct, ability, and efficiency, according to the following 
scheme : 

1 Bulletin No. ig, 1913, U. S. Commissioner of Education. 



214 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



Daily Pay of Apprentices 



Age or Entrance 


Year of Apprenticeship 


First 


Second 


Third 


Between 14 and 15 years 
Between 15 and 16 years 


Marks 

0.50-0.70 

.70- .90 


Marks 
0.80-1.00 
1. 00-1.20 


Marks 
I.IO-I.50 
1. 40-1. 80 



Qualified apprentices may be allowed to undertake piece- 
work in their third year, and for this receive up to 50 pfennigs 
a day in excess of their daily wage. 

No subtraction from the wage of the apprentice shall be 
made for the working hours in which he attends improvement 
school. 

Sec. 4. The apprenticeship begins with the (date) and 
lasts three years. Work days in which the apprentice has 
neglected (his work) shall not be included in the reckoning 
of the length of apprenticeship, but so much more must be 
added. With good conduct and eflSciency, the repetition of 
neglected days to a maximum of 25 may be remitted. 

Sec. 5. The first three months of the apprenticeship are a 
period of probation, during which either party may withdraw 
from the apprentice contract. 

After the probation period the firm is authorized to dis- 
charge the apprentice at once before the ending of the con- 
tractual time in the cases stated in section 123 of the National 
Industrial Law (see supplement), or when he has repeatedly 
violated his duties of obedience and truth, industry and 
proper conduct, or neglected his attendance on improvement 
or trade school. (Sec. 2.) 



APPENDIX VIII 215 

Sec. 6. On the part of the apprentice, the apprenticeship 
may be ended in the cases of section 124, numbers i, 3, 4, and 
5 of the National Industrial Law (see supplement), and also 
if the firm neglects their legal duties toward the apprentice 
in a manner dangerous to his health, his morals, or his train- 
ing, or misuses the right of fatherly authority, or becomes 
unable to fulfill their contractual duties. 

Sec. 7. On the close of the apprenticeship a certificate 
shall be given to the apprentice concerning the length of the 
apprenticeship and the knowledge and skill acquired during 
it, as well as concerning his conduct. An apprentice letter 
(Lehrbrief) shall be given only when the contractual period 
of apprenticeship has been completed or shortened with 
approval of the firm. 

Sec. 8. The firm reserves to itself the payment to the 
apprentice on regular completion of apprenticeship, when 
his conduct and efficiency was, according to the decision 
of the official in charge, good, of a reward not to exceed 
150 marks. 

The firm decides according to its free judgment whether the 
payment is to be refused wholly or in part, and whether it 
is to be made to the apprentice himself or to his legal repre- 
sentative. 

Sec. 9. Subject to the provisions of this contract, the 
apprentice is subject to all regulations for the workers of the 
cast-steel factory, especially the work regulations. 

For other matters, so far as there are no regulations in the 
present contract, the provisions of the National Industrial 
Law apply. 

Sec. 10. Apprentices who remain at the steel factory 
after the close of their apprenticeship shall, on continued good 



2i6 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

conduct and efl&ciency, so far as possible, be given opportunity 
to train themselves further and to progress. 
Essen / Ruhr, the (date) 



(Signature of the apprentice.) (Signature of the legal representative.) 

Fried. Krupp 
Aktiengesellschaft. 
Das Direktorium. 
The above apprentice contract is that used in the great 
Krupp works, employing 30,000 men, besides officials. The 
normal contract forms of the chambers of industry for hand- 
work in Prussia are very long and provide for almost all 
questions that might arise under the apprenticeship. Their 
main provisions are presented in the exposition of the Na- 
tional Industrial Law, in chapter 7. Different forms of con- 
tracts are sometimes used for handworkers and for factory 
workers. 

• 
APPENDIX IX 

WANTED : A JOB — " ANYTHING AT ALL " 
BY CLEMENCE FEIGENBAUM 

Terminal Employment Agency 

Brooklyn, New York 

One after another they come in, old and young, strong and 
weak, all on the same quest, the all-important job. What 
can they do ? Nothing, most of them. But a job they must 
have, and a job they demand. 



APPENDIX IX 217 

With the old it is already too late. No one wants them, no 
one can use them. The unskilled person has nothing to 
market but brute strength. When that is gone, he has lost 
all the economic value he ever had. 

But what to do with the young? That is the great 
problem. They know nothing, they wish to know nothing. 
They drift along from job to job, from worse to better, and 
back again to worse. A fifty-cent piece looks bigger than the 
prospect of learning a trade. Just to-day I had a call from a 
large meter works for a boy. He was to get $6.50 as a be- 
ginner. It was not much, of course, but the boy would be 
taught a good trade, the mechanics' and pipe-fitters'. At 
either of these trades he would in time be in a position to com- 
mand a higher wage than his unskilled father had ever thought 
of. But not a boy would take the place. Boys living at 
home and whose earnings are only spending money laughed 
at it. They wanted nine or ten dollars, not caring about a 
trade. 

In the Spirit of Youth and the City Streets Jane Addams 
sums up the situation far better than I could. But as man- 
ager of an employment agency in one of the largest factory 
centers of the world, I have been struck by the facts as never 
before. Hundreds of people come into my office every week, 
yet for the great majority of them I have no position. They 
are unskilled. The call is for skilled people, those who know 
some one thing. These are always in demand. They re- 
ceive fairly good wages. But the unskilled — they are a drug 
on the market. As the foreman in one of the factories here 
remarked, they know nothing and they want to be paid for 
it. 

Here are a few examples of places open to the unskilled. 



2i8 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

I am taking these out of my order book just as they came to 
me over the telephone. Of course, I do not give the names of 
the firms who sent in these calls, but they are all actual posi- 
tions that I filled without any trouble at all. I can fill a call 
for a laborer in about twenty minutes, provided it comes in 
the morning. If it comes later I can fill it in perhaps an hour, 
or at the most, two. 

Two laborers, strong, ten-hour day, $i to $1.50 a day. 

Laborer, nine-hour day, $8 a week. 

Elderly man to do porter work, nine-hour day, $10 a 
week. 

Boys about eighteen (3), eight-hour day, $7 a week. 

Strong boy (18 or 19), eight-and-a-half -hour day, $5 a 
week. 

Colored boy for porter work, ten-hour day, must have 
excellent references, $6 a week. 

Strong boy (16) eight-hour day, $5 a week. 

Seven girls, nine hours, must be over 16, $4.50 a week. 

Laborer about 285 German preferred, strong, $9 a week. 
All these are t)T)ical. I have quoted only one order for 
girls, but I receive many such, every week. 

Here, then, is our problem. Those for whom it is too late 
to learn must somehow or other be supported. But that is 
the smallest part of the problem. We must train the younger 
ones, teach them something at which they can make a re- 
spectable living, and the spirit of youth prohibits. Frankly 
I can see nothing to be done until the employers are ready to 
cooperate to the extent of having their younger employees 
go to continuation schools. An intelligent system of welfare 
work, and above all, shorter hours, would do wonders. 

The Survey, 1914. 



APPENDIX X 219 

APPENDIX X 

VOCATIONAL SCHOOL FOR BOYS (PUBLIC), 
NEW YORK 

EXTRACTS FROM THE ANNUAL REPORT ^ OF 
THE PRINCIPAL, DR. CHARLES J. PICKETT 

Statistics 

The average daily attendance for September, 191 2, was 334 ; 
for July, 1913, it was 444. The average for the year was 427. 
During the year, 892 different pupils received instruction. 

In February, there were 28 graduates from the two-year 
course; in July, there were 48; a total of 76, distributed as 
follows: 

Architectural and Mechanical Drawing 17 

Commercial Design i 

Electric Wiring and Installation 35 

Machine Shop and Forge Practice 13 

Pattern Making 3 

Plumbing i 

Printing 2 

Woodworking _4 

Total 76 

Carpentry Department 

No. of graduates from July, 191 1, to February, 1913 . . 9 

No. of graduates located and reported on 9 

No. of graduates employed in trade work 7 

No. of graduates employed in clerical work i 

No. of graduates employed in unskilled work .... i 
Average present wage of class of July, 191 1 . . .No graduates 

Average present wage of class of February, 191 2 . . . ? 11.25 

Average present wage of class of July, 191 2 ^8.50 

Average present wage of class of February, 1913 . . . ^6.00 

Average wage of 37 non-graduates of this department . ■^4-74 

1 School year, 1912-1913. 



220 HANDBOOK OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



Electric Wiring Department 

No. of graduates from February, 1912, to February, 1913 36 

No. of graduates located and reported on 36 

No. of these employed at trade work 30 

No. of these employed at clerical work 5 

No. of these employed as a musician i 

No. of these employed in unskilled work o 

Present average wage of class of February, 191 2 . . . ^12.94 

Present average wage of class of July, 191 2 ^10.00 

Present average wage of class of February, 1913 . . . ^8.40 

Notes: Views of several of the classes are shown in the illustrations. 



APPENDIX XI 



NEW YORK EVENING SCHOOL OF INDUS- 
TRIAL ART (PUBLIC) 

EDWARD C. ZABRISKIE, PRINCIPAL 

Purpose 

The purpose of this school is to provide free instruction in 
drawing and design as applied to art industries. It appeals 
to art students with decorative work in view, and to workers 
already engaged in industries where a knowledge of the prin- 
ciples of drawing, color, and design will tend to increase the 
skill of the craftsman and enable him to advance in his voca- 
tion. 

Courses of Instruction 

1. Book Illustration. 

2. Costume Design. 

3. Elementary Drawing from Cast. 



APPENDIX XI 221 

4. Advanced Drawing from Cast and Model. 

5. Interior Decoration. 

6. Jewelry Design. 

7. Modeling and Sculpture. 

8. Mural Decoration. 

9. Poster and Advertising Design. 

10. Stained Glass Design. 

11. Textile Design. 

Notes: Views of several of the classes are shown in the illustrations. 



INDEX 



Age of apprentices, 33. 
Agriculture, schools of, 49. 
y Albany and Rochester intermediate 
schools, 72. 
America a stevedore, 10. 
Appendices : 

I. New York law, 183, 

II. New York course of study, 190. 

III. An undemocratic proposal, 191, 

IV. Report of school visitor, 196. 

V. Murray Hill prevocational 

school for boys, 202. 

VI. Bill pending in Congress, 203. 

VII. Wisconsin apprentice law, 209. 

VIII. A German apprentice con- 
tract, 213. 

rX. Wanted: A job, 216. 

X. New York vocational school for 
boys, 219. 

XI. New York evening school of 
industrial art, 220. 

Apprenticeship and compulsory educa- 
tion, 133. 
Switzerland, 133. 
Germany, 134. 
America, 138. 
legal indenture, 140. 
the entrepreneur, 143. 
and the trade-union, 143, 
Apprenticeship : 
contract, 137. 
examination, 138. 
Attendance and promotion, 157. 
Attendance ofl&cer, 156, 158. 

Baden plan of training vocational 
teachers, 104. 

Balliet, Thomas M., on manual train- 
ing high schools, 77. 

Barrows, AUce P., 15. 

Bennett, Arnold, 146. 



Birbeck, Dr. George, 18. 
Building trades, teachers of, 98. 

Carver, Professor, quoted, 4. 
Census, the school, 153. 
Changes in manual work, 54. 
Child labor in England, 146, 148. 
Citizenship, training for, 5. 
Cleveland school, the, 71. 
Colebrook academy, 79. 
Commerce and industry, schools of, 46. 
Commercial and industrial education 

in New York City, 78. 
Commercial course in elementary 

school, 67. 
Compulsory education, 145. 

in Germany, 147. 

in England, 148. 

in Scotland, 150. 

in Ireland, 150. 

in France, 150. 

in Switzerland, 151. 

in the United States, 151. 

in New York State, 154. 

in New York City, 155, 160. 

the attendance oflScer, 156. 

the school visitor, 161, 196. 
Conservation of people, 4. 
Continuation and improvement 

schools, 32. 
Continuation school board, 40. 
Continuation school for apprentices, 89. 
Continuation schools, 83, 85. 

kinds, 87. 

cost and results, 41, 91. 

in Massachusetts and Connecti- 
cut, 92. 

teachers of, 99. 

Dean, Arthur D., 74. 
Dewey, John, 191. 



223 



224 



INDEX 



Differentiated courses of study, 6$. 
Draper, Andrew S., 14. 

Education and the press, 165. 
Educational value of manual training, 

52. 
Elimination, a study of, 61. 

Dr. Ayres on, 64. 

in New York City, 66. 
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 15. 
Employers' associations, 40. 
Equal opportunities for all, i. 
Evening schools : 

in England, 24. 

in Scotland, 28. 

in Springfield, Mass., 95. 

fees, 25. 

Farming and trades, 11-13. 
Fitchburg school, the, 68. 
high school, 94. 

Germany, apprenticeship, 134. 
Gompers, Samuel, 169. 
Gulick, Luther H., 7. 

Habit of success, 7. 

Household arts course in elementary 
schools, 68. 

f 
Improvement and continuation schools, 

32. 
Industrial arts, teachers of, 99. 
Industrial revolution, 11. 
Industrial training vs. manual training, 

50. 
Industries in public education, 56. 
in the United States, 58. 
in the elementary school, 56, 59, 69. 
in the high school, 74, 79-82. 
Intermediate school, the, 65. 
Intermediate schools, Ust of, 73. 

Jamaica Plain school, 60. 
Joy in work, 8-10. 

Kent, Ernest Beckwith, 52. 
Kerschensteiner, Dr. Georg, 8, 33. 



Literary course in elementary school, 

67. 
Lowell, James Russell, 153. 

Manual arts course in elementary 

schools, 68. 
Manual training vs. industrial training, 

50. _ 
changes in, 54. 
high school, defined, 75. 
Massachusetts and Connecticut, laws 

of, 92. 
Mechanical engineering, teachers of, 

98. 
Mechanics' institutes, 18. 
Modern manufacture, 13. 
Munich continuation schools, 35. 
Munich idea, the, 8. 
Munich plan for training vocational 

teachers, 102. 

National aid to vocational education, 
169. 

National Association of Manufacturers, 
170. 

National Education Association, reso- 
lution of, 58. 

New York's provision for vocational 
education, 37. 

Occupations of children, 15-16, 
Organization of vocational education : 

in England, 21. 

in Scotland, 26. 

in Germany, 31. 

in France, 44, 

Page bill in Congress, 170. 
Part-time system in Cincinnati, 87. 

in high school, 88. 
Place of industries in public education, 

56. 
Public industrial education in England, 

18. 

Retrospect, a, 50. 

Rochester intermediate school, 72. 

Ruskin, John, 57. 



INDEX 



225 



Schneider, Herman, 87. 
Scholarships for trade teachers, 116. 
School and industry, 3. 
Secondary schools of arts and trades, 

47- 
Shi els, Albert, 25. 
Shop vs. trade school, 83. 
Shrigley, John M., 33. 
Snedden, David, on differentiated 

courses, 67. 
Snowden, A. A., 32. 
Special industrial classes, 60. 

industrial normal schools, 116. 

day course in intermediate technical 
school, 117. 
Springfield evening school for trades, 

95. 
Success, the habit of, 7. 
Supervision of vocational schools : 

in Germany, 34. 

in Munich, 39. 
Switzerland, apprenticeship, 133. 

Teachers of agriculture, 108. 
Technical high school, defined, 75. 
Thorndike, Edward L., on elimination, 

61. 
Topics for discussion, 173. 
Trade school vs. shop, 83. 
Training for citizenship, 5. 

of vocational teachers, 97. 
Truants, mmiber of, 157. 

Values, a study in, 52. 
Visitor, the school, 161, 196. 
Vocational education : 

in England, 17. 

in Scotland, 26. 

in Germany, 30. 



in France, 42. 
in New York State, 74. 
in New York City, 37. 
bibliography, 180. 
conclusion : 

the remedy, 167. 

national aid, 169. 

final summary, 171. 

the danger, 164. 

a common error, 166, 
Vocational guidance, 120. 
scope, 120. 
in New York City, 121. 

students' aid committee, 122. 

central vocational bureau, 124. 
in Boston, 127. 

work of vocation bureau, 128. 
summary, 131. 
Vocational teachers, training of, 97, 

lOI. 

for girls' schools, 100. 
Munich plan, 102. 
Wurttemberg plan, 103. 
Baden plan, 104. 
summary, 106. 

plans in the United States, 107, 112. 
the Cincinnati plan, iii. 
certification, 113. 
sources of supply, 114. 
proposed schemes in the United 
States, 116. 

Walsh, James J., 9. 
Ware, Fabian, 49. 
Weaver, Eli W., 121. 
Wurttemberg plan of training voca- 
tional teachers, 163. 

Y. M. C. A. schools, 38. 



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HOLTZ, Frederick L., A.M., Head of the Model School, Brook- 
lyn Training School for Teachers, New York City. Princi- 
ples and Methods of Teaching Geography. Cloth, i2mo, xii 
+ 359 pages $1.10 

HXFEY, Edmund B., of the Western University of Pennsylvania. 
The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. Cloth, 1 2mo, xv! 
+ 469 pages $1.40 

JONES, Olive M., LEARY, Eleanor G., and QUISH, Agnes E. 
Teaching Children to Study. The Group System applied. 
Cloth, i2mo, illustrated, viii -f- 193 pages $0.80 

KILPATRICK, Van Evrie. Departmental Teaching in Elemen- 
tary Schools. Cloth, 1 2mo, xiii -t- 130 pages $0.60 



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KIRKPATRICK, Edwin A., Principal of State Normal School, 
Fitchburg, Mass. Fundamentals of Child Study. Cloth, 
i2mo, xxi + 384pages $1.25 

— Genetic Psychology. Cloth, xv +373 pages $1.25 

KERSCHENSLEINER, Georg, The Idea of the Industrial 
School. Translated from the German by Rudolf Pintner. 
Cloth, xii + no pages $0.50 

MACVANNEL, John Angus, Ph.D., Professor of the Philosophy 
of Education in Teachers College, Columbia University. Out- 
line of a Course in the Philosophy of Education. Cloth, i2mo, 
ix + 207 pages $0.90 

MANN, C. RiBORG, Associate Professor of Physics, The Univer- 
sity of Chicago. The Teaching of Physics for Purposes of 
General Education. Cloth, i2mo, xxv + 304 pages . . . $1.25 

McKEEVER, William A., Professor of Child Welfare in the Uni- 
versity of Kansas. Farm Boys and Girls. Cloth, 1 2mo, illus- 
trated, xviii + 326 pages $1.50 

— Training the Boy. Cloth, i2mo, illustrated, xvi + 368 pages .$1.50 

— The Industrial Training of the Boy. Cloth, i2mo, illustrated, 

viii + 72 pages $0.50 

— Training the Girl. Cloth, i2mo, illustrated, xviii +337 pages . $1.50 

MONROE, Paul. A Text-book in the History of Education. 

Cloth, i2mo, xxiii + 277 pages $1.90 

— ^A Source Book of the History of Education. For the Greek and 

Roman Period. Cloth, 8vo,xiii -1- 515 pages $2.25 

O'SHEA, M. v., Professor of the Science and Art of Education, 
University of Wisconsin. Dynamic Factors in Education. 
Cloth, i2mo, xiii + 320 pages $1.25 

— Linguistic Development and Education. Cloth, i2mo, xvii + 

347 pages $1.25 

PARK, Joseph C, State Normal and Training School, Oswego, 
New York. Educational Woodworking for Home and School. 
Cloth, i2mo, illustrated, xii + 210 pages $1.00 

PERRY, Arthur C, Jr., Ph.D., Principal of Public School, 
No. 85, Brooklyn, N.Y. The Management of a City School. 
Cloth, 1 2mo, viii + 350 pages $1.25 

— Outlines of School Administration. Cloth, i2mo, viii -I-452 pages $1.40 

PYLE, William Henry, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Educa- 
tional Psychology in the University of Missouri. The Ex- 
amination of School Children. Cloth, i2mo, v + 70 pages . $0.50 

ROWE, Stuart H., Professor of Psychology and the History of 
Education, Training School for Teachers, Brooklyn, New 
York. The Physical Nature of the Child. Cloth, i2mo, vi ^- 
211 pages $0.90 

ROYCE, JosiAH, Professor of the History of Philosophy in Har- 
vard University. Outlines of Psychology. Cloth, i2mo, 
xxvii + 392 pages $1.90 



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SACHS, Julius, Ph.D., Professor of Secondary Education in 
Teachers College, Columbia University. The American Sec- 
ondary School and Some of its Problems. Cloth, i2mo, 
xviii + 295 pages $1.10 

SCHULTZE, Arthur, formerly instructor at New York Univer- 
sity on the Teaching of Mathematics in Secondary Schools. 
The Teaching of Mathematics in Secondary Schools. Cloth, 
i2mo, XX + 370 pages $1.25 

SISSON, Edward 0., Ph.D., Professor of Education, The Univer- 
sity of Washington. The Essentials of Character. Cloth, 
i2mo, xii -I- 214 pages $1.00 

SMITH, David E., Professor of Mathematics, Teachers College, 
Columbia University. The Teaching of Elementary Mathe- 
matics. Cloth, i2mo, XV 4- 312 pages $1.00 

SNEATH, E. Hershey, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor in Yale Uni- 
versity and HODGES, George, D.D., D.C.L., Dean of the 
Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge. Moral Training 
in School and Home. Cloth, i2mo, vii -|- 221 pages . . . $0.80 

STRAYER, George Drayton, Ph.D., Professor of Educational 
Administration. Formerly Adjunct Professor of Elementary 
Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. A Brief 
Course in the Teaching Process. Cloth, i2mo, xiv-l-315 pages $1.25 

STRAYER, George Drayton, Ph.D., Professor of Educational 
Administration, and THORNDIKE, Edward L., Teachers 
College, Columbia University. Educational Administration — 
Quantitative Studies. Cloth, i2mo, xii -f- 391 pages . . . $2.00 

TAYLOR, Joseph S., Ph.D^ District Superintendent of Schools, 
New York. Principles and Methods of Teaching Reading. 
Cloth, i2mo, xiii -\- 238 pages $0.90 

THORNDIKE, Edward L., Professor of Educational Psychology 
in Teachers College, Columbia University. Education: A 
First Book. Cloth, i2mo, ix -|- 292 pages $1.25 

WARD, Florence Elizabeth, Professor of Kindergarten Educa- 
tion, Iowa State Teachers College. The Montessori Method 
and the American School. Cloth, i2mo, illustrated, xvi + 
243 pages $1.25 



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